Feminism - a problem or a struggle? History of feminism from A to Z

This article was developed under the heading: Psychology.

Section: Movements.

There is more and more news in the media that people are fighting for their rights. Those who fight for rights violated by sexist beliefs are now exposed to great publicity and interest from society. One such phenomenon is the feminist movement. In fact, this process is the most relevant, since feminization occurs almost everywhere. Let's figure out what feminism is, where it came from and how it influences modern society.

Let's look at what modern feminism is

What is feminism in simple words

In simple words, feminism is the fight for women's rights. But in reality it covers a much wider range of social problems. A unified concept of feminism has not yet been formed, so in the literature currently one can count about 300 different definitions.

The term "feminism" comes from the Latin "femina" - woman. It represents an entire social political movement, an ideology formed to protect women's rights from discrimination, sexism, to combat the dominance of some social groups over others and other types of oppression and humiliation of the female sex.

Feminism as a phenomenon is viewed from two sides:

1. Political movement. From this side, feminism is seen as a struggle for equality, giving women full civil rights, equal voting rights with men.
2. Intelligent movement. Feminism as an intellectual women's movement defines it more as a philosophical movement and covers an even wider range of issues and problems.

Origins of feminism

The roots of feminism can be found in ancient philosophy. Back in the 4th century BC. Plato wrote that rational women can have the same rights as men.

Among the first feminists, the Englishwoman Mary Estelle, who lived in the first half of the 18th century, is often mentioned. In her works she focused on the need for women's education . Estelle believed that a woman’s career opportunities should go beyond marriage and the monastery.

*Mary Wollstonecraft

During the era of the French Revolution, the treatise “Defense of the Rights of Women” appeared. Author Mary Wollstonecraft made the case for women's right to control their own destinies. The response to Wollstonecraft's treatise was the statement that the demand for the protection of women's rights was no less absurd than the protection of the rights of pets.

John Stuart Mill, the author of the treatise “The Oppression of Women,” also contributed to the development of the feminist movement. The British philosopher supported women's emancipation. The issue of women's inequality was discussed by D. Diderot, M. Condorcet, C. Fourier and F. Engels.

Can a man be a feminist?

When it comes to feminism, many people think that its representatives can only be women. A definite answer to the question of the gender of representatives puts even themselves in a difficult position. Radical representatives of feminism believe that feminism is a movement of “women for women,” holding the view that men are inherently endowed with patriarchal views. But, having understood what a wide field of problems the movement in question covers, the feminized view is completely shared by men.

More often than not, men are called “pro-feminists”, like-minded people. Patriarchy and patriarchal attitudes also negatively affect the male sex in cases where we hear the phrases “you’re a man,” “a man should,” and the like. Thus the conclusion follows - men can be feminists. The interests and needs of protecting the rights of women from oppression (mothers, sisters, daughters, and so on) are inherent in the male sex on an equal basis with women.

Feminism is a story not only about “women for women”, but also about men’s struggle for women’s rights

First wave of feminism

The first wave (otherwise known as the “long wave” (old wave)) is a period of active movement of American and British suffragettes (from the Latin suffragium - electoral vote) around 1840-1920. Suffragettes fought for the right of women to participate in elections, own property, and establish political equality between men and women.

First wave feminism was primarily interested in reforming family law, voting rights, and the economic conditions of women. From the very beginning, the women's movement faced widespread criticism, including from women themselves.

The efforts of the suffragists culminated in women's suffrage. The first state to grant this right to women was New Zealand in 1893. In 1918, women's suffrage was introduced (only for women over 30) in Great Britain, Finland and Poland, and in the United States in 1920.

Who are Feminists and Feminists?

Representatives of the feminist movement are called “feminists” and “feminists.” As we have already figured out, these include both women and men. Feminists are in some ways followers of the 19th century suffrage movement. Suffragettes were women who participated in the movement who advocated for women to have voting rights. In addition to voting rights, they fought for the equalization of women in the political and economic spheres. The current feminist movement covers many more public spheres. Feminists are forced to fight discrimination against women in politics and economics, but also in the institution of marriage, work, the social sphere and others.

Nowadays, when they say feminist, most people have a feminist image of a sharp, aggressive feminist woman who actively fights any manifestations, including sexist ones. However, such manifestations are observed only in radically minded people, and aggression is often caused by the personal qualities of the person himself.

In fact, feminists are fighting not only men, but also women. In the 21st century, the number of representatives of the feminist movement has increased sharply, and now feminists unite in organizations, for example, the Russian Feminist Association “ONA”.

Who are feminists?

I will try to explain who feminists and feminists are in simple words. Feminists are women who value their independence. The basic idea is that all people are born equal, regardless of gender. Patriarchal society belittles women's dignity and belittles the value of women as human beings. It is generally accepted that women are not only physically weaker than men, but their mental development is also much lower.

In recent years, feminism among men has been observed. Of course, they are not called feminists, and there is a term for them “profeminist”.

Profeminists, like feminists, advocate for gender equality. Feminists can accept a man into their community, but they will never allow him to lead. After all, the natural aggression of men will sooner or later take its toll, and they will try to crush women with their authority.

Feminism and masculism are essentially similar movements in ideology, and they often come into open confrontation. Supporters of the idea of ​​masculism note that their rights are violated by women. The role of men in society is such that they become “consumable” for women. At the same time, they provide data that life expectancy in men is shorter than in women.

Suicide statistics also show that men are more likely to be unable to cope with stress.

For equal violations of the law, men receive harsher punishments than women.

In a divorce, men are rarely allowed to have custody of children themselves if they have a mother. And it doesn’t matter how much this mother can and wants to fulfill her responsibilities in relation to the children. Men, on the other hand, get the modest role of purse, which is obliged to finance their former family.

All over the world, the retirement age for men is higher, and in general there is a whole range of what can be called male oppression. If a woman is raped, it is a tragedy. Violence against men is perceived as a joke.

“The main modern feminist” of the USA, Cassie Jay, tried to look at masculism through the eyes of a feminist.

The documentary she released in 2016, The Red Pill, reveals hidden problems in society that are not commonly talked about. Gradually delving into the problems of men, Cassie changed her opinion about them and about the ideas of feminism. The film received a lot of criticism, and Australian feminists achieved a ban on showing the film in their country and even declared the director persona non grata.

Basic ideas of feminism

Over time and depending on constantly changing conditions, the goals, manifestations, and direction of feminism have changed and continue to change to this day. But even in such conditions, it is possible to identify the main ideas of feminism that do not undergo significant changes:

• The struggle for political rights, the equality of women and men. Here we are talking about the fact that a woman, just like a man, has the right to vote, freely participate in the political life of society, nominate her candidacy and be elected.
• The struggle for the opportunity to receive higher education and work in the same industries as the male gender. This also includes the fight against unequal pay and working conditions, the opportunity to occupy certain positions and others.
• Combating reproductive violence. Infringement and oppression of women is also manifested in issues of reproduction. Equalizing the rights of women and men in marriage, supporting women in matters of contraception, abortion, childbirth and other issues related to women’s reproductive functions.

Feminism covers a wide range of issues that create discrimination against women in society

• Combating societal pressure on women. This means that society should not require a woman to adhere to certain rules traditionally attributed to the female gender. Starting from a woman’s appearance and ending with her social role.
• The struggle to maintain women's personal boundaries. By this formulation, feminists mean tougher penalties for sexual harassment, violence and other manifestations of harassment and sexism.
• Fighting stereotyping. Habitual and traditional views of society on women hinder the development of society and also limit the opportunities of women.

The concept of “race” from a feminist perspective

Race is a concept that denotes sociopolitical conflicts and interests regarding different types of human bodies. Race is perceived not in anthropological or biological terms, but in social terms. Certain phenotypic characteristics (body, skin color, nose shape, hair structure) are interpreted in certain social terms. That is, a person is surrounded by a number of prejudices associated with his racial ethics, which is determined by the structure of the body.

There are many strands of feminism that work with race. The most popular is black and intersectional feminism. One of the most prominent representatives was Angela Davis, she actively supported the policies of the USSR and was quite popular among us. Together with Kimberle Crenshaw, they said that women's experiences are very woven into racial identity and that the problems of black women are often not identical to the problems of white women.

The essence of black feminism:

• Feminist theory and anti-racist politics exclude black women and focus on the experiences of oppression of either white women or black men;
• Patriarchy is a “white” construct. Black women often worked outside the home and faced the same problems as white women;
• White feminists were reluctant to involve black women in their activities so as not to scare away other white women.

History of feminism

The very first mentions of feminist manifestations appeared back in 789, when for the first time in the world, Charlemagne issued an order to create schools where not only boys, but also girls could study. Also, the education of girls and women in monasteries dates back to this time.

The official origin of feminism in the world dates back to the 18th century. It was during the Revolutionary War in the United States that women first voiced their demands for equal rights and equality with men. Abigail Smith Adams is considered one of the first feminists. In a speech in 1776, she said the following phrase: “We will not submit to laws in which we have not participated, and to an authority that does not represent our interests.” After this, in the USA, France, England and other countries, women appeared who defended their rights, however, the authorities prevented such manifestations of feminism, restricting women in every possible way.

Abigail Adams - the first woman feminist

Only from the end of the 19th century in many European countries women began to be given the right to vote. The development of the feminist movement in various periods was suspended mainly in those years when the world was engulfed by wars and rehabilitation after them. In 1979, the first international agreement that proclaimed equality between men and women was the Charter of the United Nations. The adoption of the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women became one of the most significant results of the feminist movement, even despite the fact that most of the Muslim country did not recognize it.

Man is man's enemy

Back in 1967, American radical feminist Valerie Solanas, who attempted to assassinate artist Andy Warhol, stated that the male is a mistake of nature, an intermediate species between a woman and a monkey. Man-hatred occupies a prominent place on the agenda of many representatives of modern radical feminism.

Holders of such views declare the negative influence of male society on their mental state. They organize women's communes to be as far away from men as possible. One of the most famous - Alapine - was formed in the US state of Alabama in 1997, it includes about two dozen homosexual women. In total, there are about a hundred such women's settlements in the United States. A resident of one of them, radical feminist Winnie Adams, said that she left her husband and children to move to a women's commune. According to her, men are aggressive, and she prefers not to be around them for her peace of mind.

Misandry—hatred, prejudice, and prejudice against men—is permeating Western communities and increasingly causing scandals like those at Google and Paris City Hall. Activists on social networks openly declare hatred towards men and call for a boycott of any of their activities. Thus, feminist and journalist Kiri Rupiah said that men are trash because even the most harmless of them have the potential to become rapists.

It's not enough to just help each other, we have to erase men. Erase them from your mind, from your imagination, from your self-presentation.

Alice Coffin, author of Lesbian Genius

Her like-minded women spread the hashtags #killallmen (“Kill all men”) and Men Are Trash (“Men are trash”) on social networks, which remain popular on Twitter to this day.

At the same time, activists are not afraid of being “canceled” or condemned for such radical and offensive statements, since they speak on behalf of the “oppressed community” - and it really works. Even the most rude attacks against males remain unpunished. With the emergence of the #MeToo movement, outright insults against men began to appear on Facebook: in posts and comments they were indiscriminately called scum, rapists and pigs. Moderators began deleting such publications and blocking the profiles of their authors, which caused a powerful wave of criticism. Radical feminists complained about the service's discriminatory policies and restrictions on freedom of expression. As a result, representatives of the social network restored some comments and admitted that blocking the profile was too harsh a decision, despite the fact that “Facebook should remain a safe environment for everyone.”

Misandry sometimes takes on the most unexpected and controversial forms. In 2015, the anonymous post of a feminist who said that she had terminated her pregnancy in the second trimester when she found out that she was expecting a boy was widely discussed online. According to the woman, she “could not give birth to another monster.” It is worth noting, however, that the veracity of this story, as well as the identity of the author, have never been established.

Anthony Sinott, a sociology professor at Canada's Concordia University and author of Rethinking Men: Heroes, Villains and Victims, notes that radfem creates an unusual situation. As women become more empowered and as more women become world leaders, more and more feminists begin to sympathize with misandrist ideas. According to the scientist, these ideas, which once became the basis of the concept of “toxic masculinity,” are essentially a form of reverse sexism.

These ideas have a negative impact on gender relations, leading to gender polarization and the growth of anti-feminist sentiments among men. Why support a movement that so obviously hates you?

Anthony SinottProfessor of Sociology, Concordia University, Canada

The sociologist emphasizes that misandry has long ceased to be a marginal phenomenon with isolated manifestations. According to him, in most countries there has essentially been an institutionalization of the term “toxic masculinity”: violence against women is discussed at the government level and proposed to be considered terrorism, ignoring the fact that in the USA, Canada and the UK, men are almost three times more likely than women become victims of various crimes. The same applies to the number of suicides and accidents at work and even the average life expectancy, which is lower for men than for women. At the same time, the sociologist notes, feminist discourse ignores the so-called “heroic masculinity” - for example, the episode of the Titanic sinking, when men gave up their places to women in the few lifeboats. There are plenty of heroic deeds by men in the modern world, Sinott points out; just remember the work of the rescuers who risked their lives during the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 in New York.

Zagreb Institute of Philosophy professor Ivana Skuhala Karasman notes that misandry directly contradicts the central idea of ​​feminism to create a society in which men and women are equal, in which everyone has the same rights, privileges, responsibilities, financial and career opportunities. “We must treat each other with understanding. Hatred of the opposite sex makes life in one society impossible,” Karasman is sure.

If a woman shares the ideas of misandry, then she is no better than a sexist man. Hatred of the opposite sex is sexism

Ivana Skuhala Karasman Professor, Zagreb Institute of Philosophy, Croatia

According to her, the narrative promoted by Radfem greatly harms the image of feminism as a whole. Karasman admits that she herself often encounters prejudice: when she tells someone that she is engaged in gender studies and is a feminist, she often hears in response: “Oh, so you hate men?” or “Are you a lesbian?”

Stages of development

The history of feminism is usually divided into 3 waves, each of which corresponds to a historical era, events, wars and constant changes in society. Each wave is determined by specific aspects of discrimination against women. Accordingly, the goals and results shift, however, the previously discussed main principles are preserved.

First wave feminism

The first wave of feminization dates back to 1850–1930. This includes the creation of the very first feminist organizations. This wave is the most liberal, as feminists (most likely even suffragettes) fought for universal equality of rights, regardless of gender. The main event of the first wave is the adoption of the 19th Amendment of the US Constitution. It says that gender is not an obstacle to limiting voting rights and the right to participate in political life.

The results of the first wave were:

• Women gaining the right to vote;
• The right of women to receive education, regardless of age or class;
• Permission to obtain higher education in any specialty;
• The right to work in any chosen profession. Law and politics were no exception for women;
• Obtaining property rights for married women.

First wave feminism is the fight for basic human rights and values ​​for women

Second wave feminism

Second wave feminism is usually dated between 1960 and 1981. In the second wave, feminism as a phenomenon becomes more complex and acquires new manifestations. In addition to political rights, feminism develops in relation to the woman herself. Feminists go against the traditional idea of ​​a woman only as a mother, wife, or sexual object. In addition, an active fight against domestic violence and inequality in labor activity begins.

The results of the second wave include:

• Elimination of discrimination in professional activities;
• Equality in pay;
• Development of programs to support women victims of domestic violence;
• The ban on pornography, the fight against the sexual objectification of women (that is, women are no longer accepted only as a sexual object);
• Gaining access and ability for women to use contraceptives, and some countries have legalized abortion.

Abortion remains a serious problem in many countries

Third wave feminism

The third wave of feminism took place in 1990–1999. It differs from the previous two in that feminism is overgrown with philosophical ideas. It turned not just into a liberation movement, but into an entire ideology, a system of beliefs. One of the most important issues is the question of gender identity.

The results of the third wave are:

• Sexual freedom of women. Women have the right to enjoy sexual relations without being subjected to public humiliation and condemnation of “slut shaming”);
• Creating more shelters for those who are victims of domestic violence;
• The number of women in the political, legal spheres, as well as in the media has increased.

At the present stage of society, 4 waves of feminism are distinguished, that is, the struggle for real equality and glorification of a woman’s personal choice. It is closely connected with indirect movements - body positivity, LGBT, the fight against “black” feminism, etc.

Fight through the ages

Feminism originated at the end of the 19th century in Great Britain and the United States. The first followers of this movement are considered to be the suffragists who fought for women's voting rights.

In 1945, the UN Charter, for the first time at the international level, prescribed equality between men and women as a fundamental human right.

In the 1960s, a second wave of feminism emerged in the West. Activists of the new formation spoke out against the oppression of women in the professional and domestic spheres, began to fight against all forms of violence, unfair differences in wages and opportunities for professional growth. At the same time, feminists began to defend women's reproductive rights and the rights of representatives of the LGBT community.

In the 1990s, third wave feminism began to draw attention to issues of gender and sexual identity, as well as women's sexual pleasure. Now one of the key principles of the movement has become intersectionality - considering discrimination on several grounds at once, such as gender, race, sexual orientation.

Today, the feminist movement continues to evolve and develop, as modern women still have plenty of problems. In many professional fields, a glass ceiling remains for female employees. Even in developed countries, they still face domestic violence, sexual assault and harassment - and society still unfairly blames the victims. According to the advocacy organization RAINN (Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network), one in six women in the United States has experienced sexual violence. However, more than 90 percent of study participants who were victims of violent acts did not receive the necessary support and now suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder.

Reproductive violence and restrictions on women’s rights to control their own bodies also remain a pressing problem, even in developed countries. For example, in some US states women are prohibited from having abortions even in cases of rape or incest, and last year the same restrictions were going to be adopted in Poland.

To remind the authorities and society about existing problems, activists of femme movements regularly go out to public events, organize educational programs and even send their representatives to elected bodies. These efforts are bearing fruit: women increasingly occupy leadership positions and high government positions, speak more freely about their sexuality and are not afraid to stop emotional violence and abuse, feeling the support of like-minded women. But not all feminists agree to be content with these victories

“I hate men. I have no respect for any of them to begin with,” writer Pauline Armange said in her book. Her literary work with the very provocative title “I Hate Men” was published only a year ago, but it has already been recognized as a manifesto of radical feminism along with the book “Lesbian Genius” by Alice Coffin. The authors call on women not only to remove men from leadership positions, but to exclude them from society in principle, to cultivate hatred towards them. According to them, this hatred should help women cultivate self-love and achieve more in life. Women writers proudly declare that they do not watch films made by men or listen to male musicians.

I decided to marry a man and I must admit that I still love him very much. However, this does not stop me from wondering why men are the way they are: cruel, selfish, lazy and cowardly

Pauline Armange, writer and radical feminist

The basic idea of ​​radical feminism (or radfem, as this movement began to be called) was formulated by the writer Kate Millett back in the 1970s. It lies in the fact that society is built on a system of patriarchy in which men systematically oppress women. According to Millett and other Radfem ideologues, this order has prevailed in the world since the very beginning of mankind, and the oppression of women should be considered the oldest form of discrimination.

Radical feminists declared their main task to be the rejection of masculine stereotypes and traditional gender roles that are acquired as part of gender socialization. This process, in their opinion, begins in early childhood: girls are taught that they are fragile and weak, should wear dresses and not have great ambitions.

Radfem clearly distinguishes between biological sex and gender. The second is a broader concept that defines mental, cultural and social differences. Activists suggest abandoning it altogether. For example, last September, Spanish feminists demanded that Congress use the term “sex” instead of “gender” because, according to them, the concept of gender does not allow a full analysis of the social, economic and political reality in conditions of inequality. In Spain, gender self-determination is legally allowed, but radical feminists believe this is diluting the female community and reducing women's influence in the public sphere.

The personality of a man, his human qualities and actions are not taken into account in radical feminism. It is assumed that all men are interested in being oppressors, regardless of their personal beliefs and behavior, and strive to maintain dominance over women in the economic and social sphere. Some activists even refuse heterosexual relationships and identify themselves as lesbians for ideological reasons. In their opinion, heterosexual and bisexual women remain under the yoke of men.

As their ideology developed, radical feminists came to the conclusion that the values ​​of their community should rise above the comfort of men, and women should take their place in the social hierarchy. And it is proposed to carry out these transformations by very radical means.

What do feminist supporters fight for?

Initially, during the first and second waves, representatives of feminism fought for those rights that now seem ordinary to us, and we cannot imagine modern life without these things. For example, for the right of women to wear trousers, get an education, vote in elections, work and others. Later, as feminism began to develop as an ideology, the range of feminist goals began to expand. There are several main areas in which the struggle continues to this day.

As relationships and social phenomena become more complex, there are more reasons to fight and protect women

Safety

The established and outdated opinion of a woman only as a sexual object makes the female sex afraid of harassment to this day. Feminism's struggle towards women's safety is to:

• Sexual violence, harassment. So-called street harassment. A woman is in constant fear of becoming a victim of violence, no matter what kind of person she is or what she looks like. However, quite often the woman herself is accused of “dressing incorrectly,” “provoking,” and so on.
• Domestic violence. Feminist movements have been working in this direction for a long time. Since the end of 2021, many sources, social networks, and at the state level have been discussing the need to adopt a law “On Domestic Violence.” In Russia, so far there is only a draft law.
• Manifestations and traditions, customs in some cultures. These include mostly Muslim countries where female circumcision is still practiced.

The fight against tradition is widespread throughout the world. Feminization requires the elimination of such traditional foundations and the protection of women from the enslaved views of certain nations and cultures.

Wellbeing

The following aspects are highlighted in this direction:

• Stereotypical, gender-based views that do not allow women to achieve what they want, for example, in career growth. The so-called glass ceiling, which is established in relation to the female gender and does not allow them to develop in a professional environment, regardless of personal and professional qualities.
• Prohibition of activities in certain professions. In Russia there is a list of professions that are inaccessible to women. For 2021 it contains 100 professions. Until January 1, 2021, the list consisted of 456 professions.
• Due to established patriarchal traditions in society, women cannot be complete hedonists.

The UN constantly raises issues of illegality of discrimination against women in labor as part of its activities.

Liberty

Women's freedom is also one of the most important areas of feminist struggle.

• Imposing the image of a woman, sexism. The existence of a certain image and deviation from it causes public censure and humiliation.
• Abortion. According to feminists, abortion bans impose the function of childbearing on women. This means that they limit the choice of the woman herself to give birth or not.

Abortion is the most serious problem in women's modern struggle for their rights. In many countries, feminization has not led to the legalization of abortion. For example, in Senegal, Egypt and Iraq, abortion is completely prohibited. Many countries have an abortion exclusivity system. This means that abortions are only allowed for medical reasons or when it is necessary to save the life of the child's mother. For example, in Israel, abortion is possible only with the appropriate decision of a special medical commission.

Equality

Equality is the most important component of all areas of feminism. It manifests itself, for example, in the equality of wages for women and men when performing the same work, payment for a similar position.

Types of feminism and their differences

The question sounds surprising: what kind of feminism is there? After all, by definition, this is a women’s struggle for equality, so where did the different directions come from?

The fact is that in different countries, at different times, groups of women were formed who solved specific problems that arose in a given period of time. The different social status of these women, their position in society, was a factor that influenced what the activists of the movement did. Let us outline the main directions of feminism.

• Radical feminism arose in the 60s of the last century. The main thesis of radical feminism is that society is guided not by the legal system, but by the patriarchal-gender system. Men view women solely as sexual objects and use pressure to dominate in all areas.

• Marxist feminism was formed under the influence of Clara Zetkin and Alexandra Kollontai. The main problem for women was capitalism and market relations, in which men exploited women. Women had a lot of household responsibilities that were not paid. In earlier times, feminists demanded the opening of kindergartens, laundries and canteens to make life easier for housewives. Modern feminists strive to ensure that the work of housewives is valued and paid.

• Liberal feminism is condemned by radical feminists. This form is considered too soft and abstract. Liberal feminists do not consider men to be the source of all ills and do not criticize them. It follows from their philosophy that all people are equal and everyone has the right to choose. Everything women do with their lives is their conscious choice.

• Intersectional feminism examines the many forms of discrimination against women. Intersectionality theory suggests that it is impossible to accurately describe how discrimination occurs, even within the same culture. Activists of the movement defend all women, or those who position themselves as women, of any race and social status.

• Existential feminism calls for not looking for someone to blame. Men are free because they themselves chose freedom. Change needs to start with working on your own personality and simply choosing freedom.

• Essentialist feminism emphasizes the biological differences between men and women. However, this does not make women worse or better, it is just a fact that it is stupid to argue with.

• Transactional feminism is more about protecting married women. When the first feminists fought for the right to leave the house and the right to work, they did not think about the fact that household responsibilities would not disappear. Despite the fact that in the modern world most women, like their husbands, go to work, all housework is done by the fair sex. Transactional feminists suggest treating marriage like any other business venture. That is, distribute all responsibilities fairly, perhaps even specifying the order of making morning coffee in the marriage contract.

• Postmodern feminism denies the naturalness of femininity, that is, femininity. Activists of the movement are sure that this society imposes stereotypes on what a woman should look like and what she should be like in general. Fashion magazines and ideals of female beauty were invented by men in an effort to create an androcentric world.

The varieties of feminism do not end there, but the list of them can be endless. In many ways, these movements intersect and the main points of these intersections can be identified.

Misuse of feminism

In modern society, many are sure that a feminist is a masculine woman. She hates men and organizes all sorts of actions to insult and humiliate the male sex. The radical manifestations of individual feminists make people think this way about the entire feminist movement. After all, all we see in the news about feminism is how they pour water on men on the subway who spread their legs too wide on the seat, justifying it with feminism.

In such cases, it is worth talking about the abuse of feminism. That is why it is worth understanding what feminism actually represents. Feminists have never struggled with a man offering his hand, opening the door for her, or helping with heavy bags. Feminism is about equality in education, social and political spheres, and work.

Feminism does not involve aggressive actions towards men

Anarcho-feminism

Anarchist feminism appeared at the intersection of the fusion of the ideas of feminism and anarchism; it is difficult to say which it is more. In fact, both halves of this current serve to support the other. Anarcho-feminists believe that in order for an individual to gain freedom, any hierarchical formation that weighs on the individual must be destroyed. Patriarchal relations are also a hierarchy that must be discarded as a relic. It is interesting that anarcho-feminists often criticize the founders of “pure” anarchism - Proudhon and Bakunin, who did not consider patriarchy to be something limiting and concentrated on the socio-social system.

Anarcho-feminists pay a lot of attention to family issues. In their opinion, the traditional patriarchal family oppresses and deprives women of some rights - just like gender-based education.

Therefore, it is necessary to abolish gender roles in family relationships and not allow them to slow down the personal growth of each family member. It is not surprising that the roots of anarcho-feminism with this approach grow out of the 60s and the idea of ​​“free love”.

Types of feminism

The feminist movement has many currents that have appeared and are appearing depending on the diversity of ideas and views of individual women who are united in groups. They differ in their views, beliefs, methods of struggle and manifestations. Sometimes it can be difficult to imagine that a feminist from one movement and a feminist from another have the same ultimate goal and are fighting for one common cause. Let's look at the three most famous varieties of feminism.

Liberal feminism

Liberal feminism is considered to be the most classic and widespread movement. It is aimed at fighting for equal rights and freedoms for women in general. The main idea of ​​liberal feminism is that a woman has physical and intellectual capabilities on an equal basis with a man. At the same time, preventing possible discrimination in science, labor, politics, and so on. The reason for the oppression of women is considered to be traditional, established upbringing and legal restrictions, both previously existing and new. To achieve their goals, representatives of liberal feminism use legal and political programs without resorting to aggressive manifestations.

Liberal feminism is closely linked to politics

Marxist feminism

Marxist feminism was formed at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia, and it was Russia that influenced the development of Marxist feminism. The ideas of Marxist feminism are to combat the exploitation of women (unpaid domestic work, work of housewives and others). Before the advent of Soviet power, the Bolshevik government guaranteed political equality, suffrage, women's education, and abortion was decriminalized.

Radical feminism

Radical feminists are the most ardent representatives of feminism. Radical feminism differs from its other varieties in its most extreme manifestations and is the direct opposite of liberal feminism. According to representatives of radical feminism, the reason for its appearance is the formation of human relationships within society over a long period of time. It was most popular during the second wave of feminism.

It is among radical feminism that cases of aggression and distortion of the ideas of feminism are common. Feminization in this case is aimed at the oppression of men, their discrimination and xenophobia.

Basic ideologies of the women's movement

With the advent of the first feminist movements, the direction is divided into separate sectors, and different sub-streams of feminism appear. The main types are listed below.

Liberal feminism

Women's movement, which arose in the era of the 18th century. It is aimed at gaining freedom of choice and individual freedom for women in general.

Representatives of this movement defend the point of view that women have the same intellectual and physical abilities as men, therefore no one should discriminate against them in the spheres of science, work and public discussions. They strive to achieve equality through a political and legal program without being subservient to men.

Radical feminism

A direction that has been operating from 1980 to the present day in the world and in Russia. The opposite of the liberal direction. This is a more violent movement that challenges and tries to overthrow patriarchal conditions by opposing discrimination, oppression and humiliation of women, social and physical violence against them.

The reason for centuries-old oppression of women, in their opinion, lies in relationships formed over centuries, and not in the legal system or conflicts of the class sphere (this is the main difference from the liberal, Marxist and other directions).

Marxist and socialist

The first direction is a movement that sees the problem of women's oppression under patriarchy in private property and capitalism. Property gives rise to inequality in the economic sphere and dependence on men.

The second direction is a sub-branch of the first. Representatives of this movement also see the problem with private property, and the only way to overcome oppression is through active measures against cultural and economic sources of oppression. Unlike the Marxist movement, they are fighting the unequal position of women at work and at home.

Psychoanalytic

A movement in which the fairer sex explores the hidden psychodynamics that impact self-awareness and interpersonal relationships. The main distinguishing feature of psychoanalytic feminism remains the idea that all men, in their daily practice, constantly and persistently affirm and preserve this system of patriarchy. Women only occasionally resist, but most often they make concessions or do everything to be subordinate.

The mystery that psychoanalytic feminists are trying to solve is this: why do men tirelessly expend a lot of energy to maintain the system of patriarchy and why do women not resist this?

Feminist separatism

One of the directions of the radical movement, where participants fight patriarchy by establishing and maintaining relationships between women. This is a movement where they believe that relationships between the sexes are insoluble and therefore only heterosexual relationships are impossible, and not vice versa, homosexual ones.

Intersectional feminism

A movement of third wave feminism and ideology where women consider in groups issues that men have not paid attention to and have ignored for centuries.

For example, they explore various forms and systems of oppression of black women in the fields of work and education, and oppose male domination and gender discrimination. They also recently began to take part in politics.

Modern feminism

Modern feminism is gaining momentum. If initially feminism was characteristic only of the United States and some other countries, now it has become a global phenomenon for the whole world. Feminism, its directions, manifestations and ideology do not stand still, but continue to develop along with society. That is why, from its inception to this day, the evolution of feminism has kept pace with the development of society.

Feminism in Russia

In Russia, feminism began to receive wider publicity since the time of Peter 1. His reforms contributed to the entry of the female sex into the life of society. Thanks to these reforms, assemblies were created in which women participated on an equal basis with men for the first time. The assemblies were followed by the abolition of separate meals, the opportunity for women to divorce, the right of inheritance and others.

The central event of the feminist movement in Russia was the consolidation of gender equality by the Constitution of the RSFSR in 1918. During this period, representatives of Marxist and liberal feminism predominated in Russia. With the advent of Soviet power, and after the country’s participation in World War II, views acquired a more conservative character, which slowed down the development of feminism in Russia. The revival of feminism in Russia came only in the 80s.

Feminism in Russia, despite erroneous opinions, has a long history

Feminism in the West

Since the first wave, the West has been characterized by the predominance of liberal feminism. And the first representatives were mainly women from high society. Wars slowed down the development of the feminist movement not only in Russia, but also in the West, but the revival began 20 years earlier. In the 1960s, feminists renewed the fight for women's rights, but in completely different ways. If earlier feminists fought for the right to vote in elections, then in the second wave women began to seek the right to be elected.

Feminism in Russia

• The feminist movement in Russia, legalized by the Bolsheviks, was banned when Stalin came to power. Abortions were again banned, the divorce procedure became more complicated, and women's sexual freedom was regulated by the family code.

• During the Khrushchev period, women's councils began to appear. They did not call themselves feminists, and they were led by men. Few activists collaborated with Western ideological partners, as they were immediately accused of dissent.

• Finding understanding with Western feminists was difficult, due to differences in the religious sphere, and the definition of the ultimate goal of the struggle. Russian women are loyal to men, and radical feminism has not taken root in Russia.

How do people feel about feminism?

People's attitudes towards feminism depend on a large number of factors: gender, age, religious beliefs, nationality and others. For example, in some countries, especially Muslim ones, the problem of gender inequality is still acute. For example, in Pakistan, men's wages are 62.5% higher than women's. In modern realities, many people are already neutral about feminism. Although opinions are mixed: according to surveys from 2018–2019, more than 60% of respondents support the idea of ​​equality between men and women. However, only a third of all respondents support or have a positive attitude towards the feminist movement.

Modern society is skeptical about feminists and pro-feminists. People are in no hurry to identify themselves as representatives of this movement. However, the number of feminist communities and blogs on social networks is only growing and enjoying great popularity. In general, many people support the main ideas of the feminist movement - the fight against discrimination and violence, the negative impact of established gender stereotypes, and so on.

Feminism causes different reactions among members of society

Men are not allowed

Radical feminists believe that most modern social institutions are guided by patriarchal attitudes and have historically been based on patriarchal principles. And mass culture, generally accepted norms and gender roles dictate to a woman what to do, how to look and who to work with. And even if a woman claims that she does not want to change anything, this is considered an illusion imposed by men. In fact, they do not recognize the very possibility of freedom of choice for women.

In their opinion, state governments make decisions that benefit the male part of the population, and the voice of men in government bodies weighs more, while women get menial jobs and the role of service personnel. Even when women occupied a significant part of government positions in Western countries, and German Chancellor Angela Merkel openly called herself a feminist, Radfem activists did not change their position.

I'm a feminist. I used to be a little embarrassed to talk about this. But now I can say: yes, we should all be feminists

Angela Merkel Chancellor of Germany

In a similar way, radical feminism applies to religion: women from conservative religious communities are perceived by activists exclusively as prisoners and slaves. Traditions, continuity of generations and culture of these women are not taken into account. According to this logic, a Muslim woman cannot independently make a decision to wear or not wear a hijab - it will be imposed on her by men and religious dogmas. And such a belief leads to discrimination against religious women, as was the case, for example, in Germany at the height of the migration crisis.

According to a study by the University of Pennsylvania, native German women had an a priori negative attitude towards newcomers, did not enter into social relationships with them and refused to help them with assimilation into the country. As part of the experiment, scientists asked women to dress in traditional Muslim attire, go to a crowded place and ask other women for help. Before this, the subject had to act out a scene: she allegedly received a call from her sister, who could not decide whether to go to work or stay at home with the children. The participant in the experiment had to loudly discuss this problem with an imaginary interlocutor so that passers-by could hear her, and only after that ask for help.

Depending on what advice the subject gave to her sister, the number of women who agreed to help her changed. If she loudly expressed progressive views and encouraged a relative to go to work, the German women were more active in making contact. If she advised staying at home and taking care of her husband and children, her appeal in most cases remained unanswered.

But perhaps most vehemently radical feminism criticizes the nuclear family, marriage and motherhood. Representatives of the movement challenge the traditional model of forming a family union between a man and a woman for procreation. In their opinion, within the family, a woman is exploited to perform household duties and care for children and bears a double burden - her main job and household chores.

At the same time, radical feminists do not even consider such options for healthy family relationships, such as, for example, the division of responsibilities between spouses, which liberal activists advocate. Instead, they call for a complete abandonment of the institution of family. As an alternative, radfem proposes women's communes, political lesbianism and celibacy.

To overcome the feeling of isolation and loneliness in a patriarchal world, radfem calls on women to unite. Since male collective identity, according to radical femme activists, exists a priori, they call on women to create a similar model. The movement demands that the female population organize into a single group, the so-called sisterhood, to overcome discrimination and oppression. In fact, many Radfem followers strive to establish matriarchy - the dominance of women in most spheres of public life.

However, even feminists have many questions about the institution of sisterhood.

Why they don't like feminists

The directions of feminism in modern society are diverse, each of which differs in methods, focus, and specific goals. Some of the directions are different from each other. For example, the methods and beliefs of liberal feminism and radical feminism are almost opposite. When comparing these directions, one can sometimes doubt that these are all manifestations of the same movement. It is precisely regarding the nature and manifestations of radical feminism that many people, even those who support the need for equal rights for men and women, have a negative attitude towards feminism as a movement, despite its global goals.

Stereotypical views of feminists are that of women who are angry with men and aggressive. After all, all they do is shout unpleasant slogans and participate in rallies. Yes, there are also such representatives of feminism, however, they do not convey the whole essence of feminism as a movement. Public opinion is formed under the pressure of such representatives, of whom there are actually not many. The following clichés have formed that form a negative attitude towards feminists:

• "Feminists hate men." Many people are confused about this statement, which is formed due to the prevailing opinion that if women fight for equality with men, then they are negative towards men themselves.
• "A woman is a victim." This opinion turns women away from feminism. Since they are belittled, it means they are putting their weaknesses on display. However, the feminist movement is not about weaknesses, but about improving the position of women in society.
• "Feminists reject gender roles." This is completely wrong, since many feminists create families, do housework, and raise children. Feminism in the family is based on the fact that any of the partners can do household chores, while the other can work and earn money. It does not matter which of these two roles is performed by a woman and which by a man.

A negative attitude towards feminism is caused by feminists’ distortion of the provisions of this social struggle for equality

Currents related to sexual orientation

There are several areas of feminism, in addition to the already mentioned lesbian feminism, which place human sexuality at the core of their movement. For example, transfeminism, which supports a person’s right to acquire the gender he wants and not be condemned by society for it. Homosexual feminism focuses on human freedom to choose sexual partners. Such movements most often unite into one common LGBT community, which supports people with non-traditional sexual values.

Impact on Western society

Western society is changing rapidly, and feminism, as well as many other factors, determines the direction of these changes. Three waves of feminism, of which manifestations of the latter occur in our time. The feminist movement has achieved a large number of positive results for the development of the entire society.

Civil rights

What civil rights have women received throughout the history of the feminist movement?

• Women received the right to vote in elections, as well as to stand for election;
• The right to file for divorce, to keep one’s maiden name, and the right to property after divorce;
• The right to receive an education, choose a specialty and profession. Accessibility of professional fields to both women and men;
• Equalization of wages between men and women in similar positions;
• The right to medical interventions at will. For example, the choice of contraceptives, abortion.

Feminization led to civil rights for women

Integration into society

Feminism and the results of the feminist movement have become so integrated into society that some have even become invisible. The integration of feminism is that it is taken for granted. For example, the right of women to vote in elections in most countries does not surprise anyone. Although a couple of centuries ago this would have caused heated discussions and even protests. Moreover, the active policy of non-radical feminism influenced the acceptance by many states of various subcultures, which society also did not accept for a long time.

Effect on language

The feminist movement has also influenced language in many countries around the world. Representatives of feminism use words in non-sexist language. For example, in English, ideas to feminize the language are expressed in the use of the address “Miss” not only to unmarried women, but also to those who are married. Non-sexist language involves avoiding words and addresses that address both sexes. Feminists, feminists and pro-feminists believe that sexist manifestations in language negatively affect society and even promote sexism, which hinders the development of the feminist movement.

Feminitives quite often cause “irritation” in people. This is due to the fact that feminists are unusual words to use. Many women are offended by the use of feminine slurs directed at them.

Impact on morality in education

It is traditionally believed that the role of educator in matters of morality and ethics is inherent in the female sex. Despite the previously existing prohibitions on women’s education, they still participated in the process of instilling the above values. Including within the family. The issue of the influence and role of feminism on morality in education is still subject to open discussions in society between representatives of the feminist movement and its opponents.

Impact on heterosexual relationships

Feminism has also influenced heterosexual relationships. Under the influence of feminism, sex education in society has changed. A good example would be the ability of both sexes to enjoy the relationship. After all, previously a woman was considered only as a sexual object, and for having several partners she was subjected to oppression and humiliation from society.

Influence on religion

Religion has also been influenced by feminism. For example, in some areas of Protestant Christianity, women were given the opportunity to be “priests,” members of the clergy. However, in Islam, feminist manifestations are not supported and are prohibited - Muslim women do not have the right to be members of the clergy.

Feminism has greatly influenced religion

Shameful questions about feminism What do women achieve and what prevents them?

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What is this message and why is it everywhere on Meduza?

Photo: Andreas Solaro / UPPA / Photoshot / Scanpix / LETA

The feminist movement is more than a century old - during this time there have been several waves of it, and women seem to have achieved a lot. For example, the right to vote in elections, to give birth or not to give birth (however, not everywhere) or to wear short skirts (also not everywhere). At the same time, in 2017 in Russia, the word “feminist” is often used as an insult, and on the air of the federal channel they argue that the woman herself is to blame for rape. Meduza answers the most common questions about feminism.

Feminism is when women are more important than men?

Not at all, there is no need to confuse feminism and matriarchy. Feminism is a movement for women's rights and against discrimination based on their gender. This means that women should not have fewer political, economic and civil rights simply because they are women; and their rights must be respected in practice. The essence of feminism is well captured by the famous quote from the publicist Mary Shear: “Feminism is the radical view that women are human.” What feminism is not is “a movement that causes women to leave their husbands, kill their children, practice witchcraft, destroy capitalism and become lesbians” (as one American televangelist claimed in the early 1990s).

The fact that feminists would like to exterminate or subjugate men is, of course, nonsense. Even radical feminism, which often takes tough positions (and feminism has several waves and currents, including intersectional and transfeminism), is not about man-hating, but about the fight against patriarchy, a system where power at all levels, be it family or politics, is concentrated in men's hands. Another concept of radical feminism - separation - says that you simply cannot expect anything good from men, therefore it is necessary to reject all relationships built on patriarchal principles and create your own social institutions only for women.

Another radical position would be trans-exclusivity—the refusal to represent the interests of transgender women whose biological sex was male at birth. However, such views are unpopular in the feminist mainstream: it is open to both genderqueer people and women of any sexual orientation.

What kind of equality can we talk about if women and men are biologically different?

Of course, there are biological differences between female and male people. But this does not mean that men and women should have different rights and freedoms - just as people with different skin colors should have the same rights. The presence or absence of certain organs or physical abilities does not make one of the sexes better, does not automatically give their owners more privileges and does not mean, for example, that they should make decisions in the family or receive more money with the same professional qualifications. In addition, biological sex and its social perception, that is, gender, are different things that do not always coincide.

The attempt to prove the superiority of men over women using biology is based on the idea that power is associated with strength, including physical strength. However, the difference in height, weight and strength between men themselves is greater than between the average man and woman. So the point here is not what roles nature supposedly endowed us with, but the habit of identifying certain traits with men (courage, authority, determination), and others with women (patience, weakness, caring).

Why change traditions that have existed for centuries? Let men do “masculine” things and women do “feminine” things and everyone will be happy

First of all, not everyone is happy. And if men are less concerned about the current state of affairs, women still want more. According to last year’s Levada Center study, 51% of Russians surveyed and 75% of Russian women surveyed were in favor of women having rights completely equal to men. This, in particular, concerns women in power (that is, a traditionally “male” matter): the right of women to occupy top government positions on an equal basis with men is supported by 78% of survey participants and only half of the participants.

Suffragette demonstration, New York, 1912

Photo: The Library of Congress

Secondly, throughout the twentieth century, the roles of men and women changed - and more often precisely on women's initiative. Take suffrage, for example, which suffragists fought for since the late 19th century. Thanks to this, women in the United States gained the right to vote in elections in 1920, and in the UK in 1928 (the first were New Zealand women in 1893, the last were Saudi Arabian women, who voted for the first time in 2015). But once upon a time, participation in the political life of the country was considered an unfeminine matter - like, for example, serving in the army (now women can serve in 38 countries, including Russia). So we have to admit that our ideas about “masculine” and “feminine” are determined by the course of history and gender stereotypes, and not by some immutable order of things.

Why then aren't all women feminists?

Women, of course, don't have to be feminists. Feminism does not have the task of imposing anything on women; on the contrary, one of its goals is to give them the opportunity to independently choose their life scenario and have the conditions for its implementation. For example, so that society does not dictate how a woman should or should not behave, whether she should give birth or have an abortion. Moreover, it is quite possible to be a housewife, wife, mother and feminist. The main thing is that this should be the woman’s personal and conscious choice (here, however, the question arises as to how free such a choice can be in current conditions; especially if family and society insist that the main events in a woman’s life are wedding and childbirth).

Choosing the path of equality is not so easy when you have fewer not only cultural, but also financial conditions for independence. It is more difficult for women to make a career in certain fields, and throughout the world, including Russia, they earn noticeably less than men. According to some estimates, the salaries of men and women in the same positions will become equal only by 2059.

Participants in a rally dedicated to the protection of women's rights, St. Petersburg, 2021

Photo: Ruslan Shamukov / TASS / Scanpix / LETA

We should also not forget that some women support sexism. There is a concept of internalized misogyny - misogynistic views that women themselves adopt. The opinion that “all women are fools”, the desire to communicate only with men and distance themselves from other women (“I’m not like that”) - this is the attitude towards women as people of “lesser quality”, characteristic of the patriarchal system. And such an attitude, paradoxically, can be found among women themselves.

After all, many women do not want to call themselves feminists, although they share the ideas of equality. Simply because feminism in Russia (and not only) is often considered something marginal, and feminists are unkempt, aggressive or unhappy in their personal lives. It is worth noting that one of the most popular modern feminists looks like this (but in general, every woman has the right to look the way she wants).

Can men be feminists?

Of course, men can share feminist views. The question is whether a man can still be called a feminist. If we consider feminism as a women's movement for women's rights and freedoms, then a man can be more of an ally and like-minded person. To be more precise, feminists themselves use the term “profeminist” in relation to such men.

If we talk about the movement for gender equality, then there is a place for men in it. This is not only about refusing to discriminate against women: after all, patriarchal stereotypes also hinder men themselves. They are also assigned a limited role (“breadwinner”, “stronger sex”) with clearly defined characteristics of a “real” man. For example, in this patriarchal picture, a man has no right to strong feelings or weakness (“boys don’t cry”, “don’t be like a girl”), should not do “feminine” things like cooking or raising a child, and it is better for him not to choose “unmanly” things. profession (for example, a manicurist or a synchronized swimmer).

There is, however, an opinion that men cannot benefit the feminist movement (even if this

), because no matter how much they want, they are not able to completely get rid of patriarchal attitudes and privileges.

Is it possible to share the ideas of feminism, but not declare it all the time?

Feminism is becoming increasingly popular as a system of personal views, in which being a feminist does not necessarily mean being an activist, that is, participating in protests or publicly defending women's rights, even in the media, even on Facebook. This gives rise to discussions about whether feminism can be “comfortable”, “individual” - or whether it is inseparable from politics, from sensitive topics. The point is that you can consider women's rights and problems important and not talk about it, but this will not particularly help the cause.

In any case, a feminist lens helps to notice both direct discrimination or violence against women, and the lack of powerful female roles in films, sexism in the press or in the remarks of the interlocutor - and this inevitably causes a reaction. Therefore, feminism still implies an active position, and each person determines its boundaries for herself (or herself).

There has been equality in Russia for a long time. If a woman doesn’t succeed in something, it’s only about her abilities, and not about the fact that she is a woman. Is not it so?

The fact that we live in a country where equality has long been victorious is a delusion. Despite the powerful women's movement of the early twentieth century, the fact that Russian women received the right to vote earlier than German or French women, and a Soviet woman could become an astronaut or a tractor driver (from the 1930s to the 1950s they were also allowed into “hard” professions) but in the same period abortions were prohibited), in fact, there was no feminism in the USSR. It is believed that women (and men) had not so much rights and freedoms as responsibilities. At the same time, women not only worked equally with men - in addition to paid work, they were also responsible for all the “women’s” tasks of caring for the house and raising children.

The problem is still relevant - and in this sense, the situation in Russia is not too different from the global one. In 2021, researchers collected data from 217 countries and found that cleaning, cooking, caring for children and elderly parents results in 23 years of additional work for women over their lifetime, from which men are largely spared. According to recent data, women do twice as much housework as men, and often give up a career or education to do so.

A foreman at the Nizhny Novgorod Automobile Plant trains a village girl to work, 1932

Photo: Arkady Shaikhet / TASS

Women's professional activities are also limited by gender stereotypes. And although labor discrimination by gender and age is prohibited in Russia, we are a leader in the number of professions closed to women, and many companies still prefer to consider only men for certain (including management) positions. It is more difficult for women to achieve recognition in science, and, of course, the gender imbalance in pay persists.

In addition, there is a widespread belief that for success in life, a kind of “female happiness,” a woman needs love and family, and a career is secondary or even harmful to this. Therefore, the statement that all doors are open to women, nothing hinders them and everything depends only on their abilities is incorrect.

What has feminism achieved?

Suffrage, higher education, the ability to control childbirth, the right to work and own real estate, engage in politics or football, hold leadership positions - most of what women can now do is, in one way or another, the result of their struggle for their rights.

If women's empowerment isn't convincing enough, here's some interesting data: Having women in corporate leadership increases business profitability, according to data from 91 countries collected in 2021. This is confirmed by UN data: increased employment and education among women directly affects economic growth. Moreover, the better education women have, the lower the infant mortality rate.

What then do feminists continue to fight for? Haven't they already achieved everything?

Unfortunately no. In addition to the difference in pay between women and men (according to Eurostat, the difference depending on countries and age can range from 0.5% to 52.9%), domestic violence remains a big problem in many countries, which not everyone considers a crime, and rape, which is often blamed not on the rapists, but on the victim herself (in Russia, according to statistics, only 10–12% of survivors of sexual violence contact the police - the rest remain silent, usually out of shame or fear). There are patriarchal practices such as forced marriages, honor killings or female genital mutilation (such as cutting off the clitoris to suppress sexuality), banning or condemning abortion, sexual exploitation of women, and so on.

Of course, the situation of women may differ in different cultures and countries. According to 2021 data presented at the World Economic Forum, Iceland, Finland and Norway fare best in terms of equality. Russia is in the middle of this list, in 75th place, followed by Saudi Arabia, Syria, Pakistan and Yemen, where 92% of women do not have a permanent personal income.

Famous feminists and feminists

The most famous representative of feminism in Russia is the politician and writer Irina Khakamada. She conducts master classes for women, promoting the need to feminize society. However, in her own words, she is a “post-feminist” and explains this term as follows: “Post-feminists adore men, they are economically independent, professionally realized, have style and a taste for life. These women don’t fight with men, they just live for their own pleasure.”

In Russia there are not many representatives of feminism among famous people, but there are a sufficient number of them in the ranks of Hollywood stars. For example, successful actress Emma Watson. In 2014, she gave a speech on issues of equality between women and men in her role as UN Women Goodwill Ambassador. It was in this speech that she emphasized that the perception of feminists as women who hate men is incorrect. In addition, Emma Watson can often be found at all sorts of rallies in support of feminism and other protests, for example, the Women's March in 2021 in Washington.

Irina Khakamada is the most famous female politician who adheres to the ideas of feminism

Socio-political reasons for the emergence of feminism

In general, feminism is one of the consequences of the industrial revolution . The development of machines began to eliminate the need for human labor, gradually eliminating one of the advantages of men over women. This allowed women to become an increasingly important part of the working class, especially during the First World War, when they replaced men at the front.

The feminist movement initially manifested itself in two forms :

• like the equal pay movement;
• as a movement to give women the right to vote.

Equal voting rights were eventually achieved in most Western countries after World War I, and later in the rest of the world.

As women's political and economic equality was achieved in an institutional sense, feminism gradually evolved into a new form of so-called radical feminism . The goal of radical feminism was to change the traditional role of women in society by criticizing and attacking traditional social institutions - marriage and motherhood, as well as men, who are inherently repressive towards women. Although relatively few women have adopted this extreme position, it is these extreme aspects that feminism is most often associated with today.

Feminism often becomes a kind of defensive reaction to the rise of neoconservatism and religious fundamentalism, aimed at restoring traditional institutions and the traditional position of women in society.

Feminism entered the stage of a mass movement in the 19th century. and developed in waves. Then they started talking about three “waves” of feminism (first, second and third waves). They differ in their program and the way they define “women’s equality.”

Today, the ideas of feminism, such as giving women the right to vote, the right to personal property and the right to choose a partner, are easily accepted in Western society, without surprising anyone. However, a hundred years ago these ideas were atypical. This is why feminist views are now considered an integral part of political thought.

Books about feminism

A large number of both scientific and artistic works have been written about feminism as a movement. Many of them are written by feminists themselves. You can read about the origins of suffragism, the waves of feminism, and the impact on society in the following works:

• “The Gender Brain”, D. Rippon. About gender stereotypes and myths. A feminized view of the thinking of men and women from a scientific point of view.
• "Global Woman" by Barbara Ehrenreich. About women's work and the problems of inequality with men in the professional environment.
• "The Beauty Myth" by Naomi Wolf. About the influence of the beauty industry on women and the myths that feminists deny femininity.

The fix cannot be undone

A man in Sweden can hardly get a job as a nurse or kindergarten teacher, even if he really wants to and is sufficiently qualified. They are also unlikely to consider his candidacy for the position of cleaner and most likely simply will not call him for an interview. Researchers from Linköping and the University of California drew attention to this problem.

Scientists studied discrimination in the labor market for the Swedish Research Council and found that the vast majority of traditionally “female” professions are not available to men here. At the same time, a Swedish woman can easily find a job as a mechanic, a warehouse worker, a mechanic - in other words, any typically “male” job.

It's not just Swedish men who face discrimination in employment. Thus, in 2021, the court fined the Paris City Hall 90 thousand euros: with the arrival of Anne Hidalgo as mayor, most leadership positions in the city administration were occupied by women, despite the fact that, according to the law on gender parity, representatives of the same gender cannot occupy more than 60 percent of leadership positions .

Another discrimination scandal broke out in 2021 at Google. The company ordered a salary study to identify cases of infringement of the rights of women and minorities in favor of men, but found exactly the opposite picture. It turned out that men are paid less than women for the same work. As a result of the proceedings, more than 10 thousand employees received compensation. Moreover, this is the second such scandal at Google: a year earlier, former employees filed a lawsuit against the company and accused it of “discriminating against white-skinned men with conservative views.” Programmers fired for criticizing Google's gender policies claimed that management was resorting to illegal quotas to hire as many women and representatives of minorities as possible.

University of Michigan-Flint professor Mark Perry, a men's rights activist, says that American educational institutions provide many more advantages to female students and teachers compared to male ones. We are talking about scholarships, grants, research funding, financial assistance - such support is increasingly being provided to women or representatives of minorities. The scientist notes that on average, US universities have 60-70 special scholarships for girls and most often none for boys.

There is a very hypocritical double standard in higher education. The Administration does not tolerate discrimination against women, but approves and actually sanctions discriminatory programs against men.

Mark Perry Professor at the University of Michigan-Flint, USA

According to Perry, such programs appear when the leadership of educational institutions, companies, politicians and government institutions make concessions to femactivists. “It is unethical and dishonest to treat men and women differently, to provide special scholarships and programs only for women, and to deny men equal educational opportunities,” he concluded.

The scientist believes that feminism often appeals to the concepts of inclusiveness and equality, but in practice it is precisely their destruction.

Such a statement seems controversial, since in this case the professor makes an inappropriate generalization. Modern feminism has many directions and continues to develop rapidly, because women around the world still face injustice and the inability to protect their rights and even lives. There is only one branch of feminism that sets itself more ambitious goals than universal gender equality and calls for a fundamental change in the world order.

Feminism and its historical roots

Feminism as a direction in the theory and practice of the women's movement originates in the 17th century. The term itself was coined by the French utopian socialist Charles Fourier in the 40s of the 19th century and suggested a solution to the problem of equality of women and men. American researcher L. Tuttle, who published the Encyclopedia of Feminism (New York, Oxford, 1986), believes that it is a social movement and ideology consisting of many aspects and opinions, which is a simple definition that will suit everyone. who considers himself a feminist, it is very difficult to formulate.

And further: A feminist is a person who has no prejudice against other people because of their gender and through her actions promotes the political, economic, spiritual and sexual equality of women. No. Feminism focuses on the intrinsic value of women’s personalities, their right to development, creativity, and freedom of expression. One of the first feminists in France, artist and philosopher, friend of the greatest philosopher René Descartes, M. Van Schurman of Utrecht (1607–1678) advocated the scientific education of women.

Her follower in England, B. McKean, even compiled a training program for women. M. Cavendish (1623–1673) fought for it all her life. recognition among men. The famous English writer M. Astell, speaking out against discrimination against women, said that if all men are born free, then how did it happen that all women were born slaves? In 1744, through the efforts of E. Heywood, a periodical women's magazine began to be published in England. It was very popular in North America, where feminism spread during the Revolutionary War (1775-1783).

Feminist organizations formed the International Alliance of Women - Supporters of Equal Rights and Opportunities, for which the All-Russian Union of Equal Women was founded. 1905, also joined). However, as already noted, the women's movement in Russia arose long before 1905. It developed on the already existing traditions of women's charitable unions, societies, and magazines. Mikhail Bakunin in his work The Belated Voice of the Forties (about the women's question) wrote that all other questions are the essence of questions about extraneous things, and the women's question cannot be considered or considered an extraneous question, it affects the essence and very meaning of a person's entire being, and the answer to it, its resolution provides answers and solutions to all other issues affecting human life.

In Russia, the first printed magazine Women's Business. Already in 1899, feminism was in its early stages of existence. It dealt only with issues of specific women's rights: the right to work and equal pay, political and civil rights, etc., which was clearly not enough for the true emancipation of women. After the Second World War, the essence of feminism changed: it increasingly acquired a socio-political character.

Socialist feminism

Socialist feminism , in contrast to radical feminism, emphasizes the need for joint action with other oppressed groups and classes:

• anti-imperialist movement;
• workers' organizations;
• left-wing political parties;
• anti-globalists;
• LGBT movements;
• trade union organizations, etc.

For socialist feminists, the main method of solving the women's issue, the feminist struggle against sexual oppression and gender inequality is dialogue. The main source of gender inequality, according to socialist feminists, is not patriarchy, but class exploitation, from which patriarchy only emerges. The right to sexual liberation is impossible while power and wealth are in the hands of a few small and economically independent men.

Socialist feminism focuses on the specific behaviors and group dynamics by which women are kept in a subordinate position. This happens even in subcultures that claim to support gender equality. They are interested in issues of violence, sexual subordination, and women's influence on education and culture. Patriarchy is criticized, but the proposed strategy is to distance oneself from it.

Feminist socialists believe that a two-pronged struggle is needed: against class and gender oppression. Women's domestic work is not paid. Therefore, he is taken for granted.

The division of time into leisure (consumption) and work (production) does not apply to women either. Men live in two spheres: public and private, while women's lives are limited only to the private sphere. They are in patriarchal dependence both on the structures of class society and on their own husband.

Hence, socialist feminists recognize that it is necessary to fight “on 2 fronts”: against both class and gender oppression.

Second wave of feminism

Second wave feminism about in connection with the movements and theories that characterized the 1960s and 1980s. Second wave feminists defended the classic principles of feminism:

• organizing a mass movement;
• gender equality;
• anti-imperialism;
• changes in legislation;
• the widespread circulation of women's and feminist magazines;
• women's right to education;
• addressing the problem of male violence;
• equality in the labor market;
• issues of female sexuality;
• right to abortion, etc.

The second wave of feminism primarily swept the United States and some Western European countries. It resulted from disillusionment with previous efforts to promote equality, which focused primarily on formal legal guarantees. Contrary to expectations, legal changes have not led to real gender equality.

The liberal faction of second wave feminism advocated changes in laws. The radical trend indicated that the source of oppression is the patriarchal structure of society, and the condition for equality is its radical transformation.

In 1963, Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, which helped voice the frustration of American women between the imposed standards of the “happy housewife” and the lack of opportunities for professional and social fulfillment for women. The book is credited with being the spark that ignited the second wave of feminism in the United States. The success of the book gave B. Friedan the opportunity to lecture on feminism during a national tour in 1970. Ten years after this publication, women made up more than half of the total share of the first world workforce.

Introduction

Feminology is the science of the position and role of women in society. As a science about the life of a woman in society, it reflects the objective laws of her existence and serves as the basis for humane activities, the purpose of which is to realize the principle of equality between men and women. This science sets itself the task of scientifically studying the relationship between the sexes and analyzing the reasons for the existing contradictions between them. It is intended to help objectively assess the nature of these relations in various spheres of society. Feminology studies the entire complex of socio-political, economic and spiritual laws, the conditions for transforming society on the basis of an egalitarian system - complete equality of men and women in opportunities, changes in the status of women in many areas.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation of 1993 consolidated the democratic foundations of Russian statehood, provided society with legal mechanisms for resolving social conflicts, and proclaimed equal rights and freedoms for men and women, as well as equal opportunities for their implementation. At the same time, democratic reforms and economic reforms have not produced the expected results and have not contributed to progress in ensuring and protecting women's rights and freedoms. On the contrary, gender asymmetry has increased due to female unemployment, an increase in the wage gap between men and women, and destructive processes in the social sphere. Although the constitutional enshrinement of the equality of men and women, the equality of all people before the law should have been the starting point for changes in views on the purpose of women, in assessing their role in society, in their status. However, this did not happen.

Knowledge of the subject of science is necessary for a fundamental understanding of its essence. A certain content and at the same time the specificity of the object itself, which, according to the definition of the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel, something concrete, complete in itself, independent. An object... generally a single (not yet defined in itself) whole, the objective world in general, God, an absolute object.

In feminology, the object of study is a woman with all social connections and contradictions... Marx wrote that the more maturity a system achieves, the more complete its internal integrity. In relation to the science of women, this means: - development and understanding of the women's movement; — expanding contacts between various public organizations; — development of the theory about the role of women in society; - criticism of patriarchy as male power; - study of existing contradictions in this area, etc. - all this is necessary to substantiate the internal integrity of this system. In addition to the object, any science must clearly represent its subject. The subject is the essence of the object. It expresses the objective patterns of development and functioning of a certain system associated with the life of the female half of society. In I. Lenin wrote: ... all human practice must be included in the full definition of the subject both as a criterion of truth and as a practical determinant of the connection between an object and what a person needs, the subject of feminology is: - the study of socio-political and economic patterns solutions to the women's issue; status of women in society; — analysis of the gender approach to the problem of power; — the essence of discrimination against women and its socio-political consequences.

Black feminism

Feminists of these movements (sometimes collectively referred to as feminists of color or multicultural feminists) oppose the universalistic aspirations of feminism created by white women. Feminists from the African American (Black Feminism), Indian (Red Feminism) and Latino communities point out that identity is highly ethnically confused and that speaking on behalf of all women "as a whole" is a usurpation.

The dissimilarity of identity and social position entails different cognitive perspectives and value systems. Each strand of feminism deals with issues specific to their ethnic or racial group. Racist and economic issues intersect with various issues of ethnic identity and culture.

Antifeminism

Antifeminism , like feminism itself, is a very diverse phenomenon. In general, antifeminism is the opposite of the ideas or actions of the feminist movement. Depending on the social and historical context, and which ideas and factions of feminism it opposes, antifeminism can take different forms. Typically, antifeminism is based on the belief that gender inequality does not exist, or that gender reassignment is impossible or harmful.

Antifeminism is not the same as misogyny or sexism. Misogyny is discrimination against and disgust towards women, while sexism is generally based on gender.

Third wave of feminism

The third wave of feminism begins in the late 1980s. XX century She tries to deny “gender” and overcome gender differences. The third wave was inspired by the following theories:

• poststructuralism;
• queer theory;
• postcolonialism;
• environmentalism;
• gender studies;
• transnationalism;
• critical theory;
• ecofeminism;
• transfeminism.

3rd wave activists point out that the goals of feminism have not been achieved and the movement needs to be radicalized. They bring attention to previously overlooked topics, such as:

• ethnicity;
• racial issues;
• economic and religious differences.

Third wave feminism is a complex movement with many different strands. There is no consensus regarding the criteria for distinguishing them. A distinction is usually made between liberal and radical feminism.

The main criterion here is the radicalism of postulates and actions, as well as a reformist or revolutionary attitude. Another criterion for distinction is inspiration from theoretical and philosophical movements.

Based on this, the following currents of feminism :

• Marxist;
• socialist;
• psychoanalytic;
• existential;
• ecological;
• Christian;
• anarchist;
• postmodern feminism.

According to another criterion, there are branches of the feminist movement associated with certain communities, groups or classes:

• black;
• Latin;
• red;
• lesbian feminism, etc.

Marxist feminism

Marxist and socialist feminism are similar to each other, and often it is not possible to draw a sharp distinction between them. Both come from Marxism, but interpret it differently.

Marxist feminism views class conflict as the basis of all oppression, including gender inequality. Consequently, the causes of this inequality are embedded in the mechanisms of the capitalist economy and will be eliminated along with it. Women's issues are viewed as secondary and, in fact, marginal.

Gendrology

Gender is a social aspect of relations between men and women, which manifests itself in all spheres of public life, including politics, economics, law, ideology and culture.

The first definition of gender arose in connection with the feminist analysis of modern society and criticism of the discriminatory position of women in it. American sociologist E. Giddens notes about this term: If gender is associated with physical, bodily differences between a woman and a man, then the concept of gender affects their psychological, social and cultural characteristics.

Gender lies at the heart of genderology as a system of knowledge and gender policy, which presupposes:

• formation of a legal framework for ensuring gender equality;
• creating conditions and opportunities for equal participation in society by all citizens, regardless of gender;
• parity of men and women in elected and appointed positions;
• the introduction of new elements into political culture by women;
• implementation of women's initiatives in the field of legislation reflecting the interests of women and children;
• organization of broad gender education of the population in Russia.

Genderology as a new scientific direction is in its infancy and is based primarily on feminology - the science of women and social equality of the sexes.

How men see feminism

Looking through websites, social networks, various forums, one can say where most men spend their free time, discussing everything that comes into their eyes during the day, one can fail to see feminism not as big as they imagine.

Men believe that the methods of feminism are absolutely identical to the methods of kitchen housekeeping, which any woman instinctively uses to control her man. These are the methods that our men present in the modern world, as most people call it the tactics of the war of the sexes:

• Myths;
• lies, manipulation of facts, demagoguery (the so-called female logic);
• Emotional excitement (hysteria);
• Creation of a guilt complex;
• Creation of an inferiority complex;
• Manipulation;
• Provocations.

Every woman is a rebel by nature. Moreover, she rebels solely against herself. (c) Oscar Wilde

Most men agree with him and this phase and present their theory on how women take power over the man in the house. Allegedly, this manifests itself even in an ordinary family quarrel, when a woman causes a guilt complex in a man in front of a woman that a man should do some things around the house, because having received equality, they also work, in addition, they give birth to children, raise them, they cook, wash, and so on, poking, as they say, the man’s nose. Moreover, women also bargain before cooking, saying: I won’t cook, and you will sit hungry, or so that you can do without me altogether. Hence some kind of discrimination.

I work in a very well-known network company, since many people say that there is no place for girls there, and some subscribers are even surprised that girls, even young ones, work in such an area. Do some people completely refuse to communicate with a female operator, saying that we are young, inexperienced, and have little understanding of computers and the World Wide Web? And I will say, on the contrary, that many of us will be even smarter in this, and not only in this area, even than men. I know from myself.

Radical feminism

Radical feminism emphasizes the importance of protest actions as a way and method of conquering women's space and building women's culture. Radical feminists focus on male violence against women, rape, female slavery and pornography.

Radical feminists believe that the main culprit of gender inequality is patriarchy and the entire system of male power over women: from male rulers and male armies to male production, male religion, male science and male culture.

This movement seeks to break the patriarchal social structure by deconstructing its basic concepts and categories (dividing people into two genders).

Liberal feminism

Liberal feminism supports the existing social system and advocates its reform rather than its destruction. According to liberal feminists, legislation is the only way to achieve gender equality. They consider encouraging women to education and political participation to be their most important task.

Liberal feminism is rooted in the philosophy of liberalism with an emphasis on individual rights and women's labor in the private and cultural spheres. Their goal is to change the content, not the structure, of the gender hierarchy.