Personality perception and orientation. basics of general psychology

Selectivity is an individual’s acquired or developed ability for directed perception. This quality implies control of one’s own thinking, attention, perception and consciousness in general, thanks to which the psyche is able to distinguish a certain object or event from a number of ongoing external changes.

Selectivity is a property of perception that allows you to highlight the main thing and leave minor points on the periphery in a blurred background. This is an important personality quality for maintaining mental balance and overall success of activity, since the psyche becomes exhausted quite quickly when it processes a lot of material at the same time, and there is a need to concentrate on the main thing and move away from less vital details. It is selectivity that allows a person to make a choice regarding his location and group of people for communication, the food he eats and the direction of his life’s path - categories are completely different in nature and the scale of influence on the further course of events, but they are all carried out using choice.

Levels and types of perception

Definition 1
Perception is the process through which images of the surrounding world are formed, reality is reflected in the psyche.

A synonym for the word perception is the word perception, which translated from Latin means subjective, sensory knowledge of the environment. There are other words with equivalent meaning - acceptance, contemplation, appreciation, etc.

In the course of his life, a person constantly learns about the world around him; taking this or that thing in his hands, he can determine its color, density, weight, smell, etc. All these characteristics cause different sensations, which together give rise to the image of the object. This process of cognition will be the perception on the basis of which the subjective image of the object is formed.

Perception is the result of the activity of a system of analyzers. In psychology, perception is not only the sum of sensations, but also the individual knowledge of a person, his ideas about the world.

Note 1

The phenomenon of perception has a close connection with memory, thinking, attention, motivational sphere, and speech. Perception has four levels - detection, for example, a person’s ear perceives a signal, discrimination - a person understands that this signal is a sound, identification - a person determines what this sound is like from sounds familiar to him, recognition - assigning an image to a specific category , for example, this is the booming children's laughter outside the window

Perception has four levels - detection, for example, a person’s ear perceives a signal, discrimination - a person understands that this signal is a sound, identification - a person determines what this sound is like from sounds familiar to him, recognition - assigning an image to a specific category , for example, is the booming children's laughter outside the window.

Each object or phenomenon of a huge and diverse world is perceived through different analyzers, but among them there is always one leader.

Perception is classified into several types: -

Perception is distinguished by modality:
- visual,
tactile,
olfactory,
taste.
According to the leading analyzer, the following simple types of perception are distinguished:
- kinesthetic type - sensations, movements with the help of which a person reads information.
a visual view in which the leading receiver is the eyes.

If you listen to how a person speaks, you can determine his individual type of simple perception

Each person sees the world differently, based on their abilities, and this is important for understanding each other

A complex type of perception combines two or more types of perception in different combinations - it can be visual-auditory, visual-motor-auditory, etc.

A special type of perception is a specific perception depending on the perceived object.

According to the method of actualization, perception can be voluntary or involuntary. If voluntary perception has its goal, then involuntary perception is caused not by a goal, but by the environment, for example, a neurologist taps a hammer on the leg to test a physiological response.

Exaggeration of sharp corners

Many illusions are explained by the ability of our vision to exaggerate the sharp angles we see on flat figures. Perhaps this kind of illusion arises due to the phenomenon of irradiation, since the light space we see expands near the dark lines delimiting the acute angle. The direction of eye movement and their mobility in general are of great importance for these illusions. If there is a break in the lines, then our gaze first falls on the acute angle.

Sharp corners always seem larger than they actually are, which is why certain distortions appear in the relationship between the parts of the visible figure. In Fig. 15 parallel straight lines, due to the influence of the background, appear non-parallel and curved.

Rice. 15. Illusions of non-parallelism of parallel lines

Illusion of distortion of right angle and circle

Sometimes a change in the direction of lines and distortion of the shape of a figure occurs due to the fact that the eye follows the directions of other lines in the field of vision. In Fig. 16a, the sides of the square look slightly convex against the background of concentric circles, but in Fig. 16b, the circle appears somewhat distorted against the background of diverging rays.

Rice. 16. Illusions of distortion of right angles and circles

Meaningfulness

The essence of this property is to give a perceived phenomenon or object a certain meaning, designate it with a word, and also assign it to a certain language group, based on the subject’s knowledge and past experience. One of the simplest forms of understanding phenomena and objects is recognition.

Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach discovered that even random ink spots are perceived by a person as something meaningful (lake, cloud, flowers, etc.), and only people with mental disorders tend to perceive them simply as abstract spots. It follows from this that the perception of meaningfulness occurs as a process of searching for answers to the question: “What is this?”

Gratitude

I would like to thank Joel Brockner, Baruch Fischhoff, Nancy Gallagher, Beth Loftus, Duncan Luce, Dave Myers, Heather Nash, Jim Plouse, Paul Slovic, Janet Snyzek, Mark Schneider, Amos Tversky, and Vilem Wagenaar for their early assistance in developing this book. , Elle Weber, Phil Zimbardo.

I am also grateful for library assistance from Tamra Williams, Heather Nash, and Steven Liebergott.

It was a pleasure to work with members of the McGraw -
Hill .
For the love, support and encouragement along the way, I thank Diana Ersepke.

Scott Plouse

III. Additional properties:

– apperception – the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general content of a person’s mental activity and his individual characteristics;

– activity of perception – attitude towards perception,

– selectivity (preferential allocation of some items over others).

The most important properties of the image of perception

are: objectivity, structure, mobility and controllability, integrity, constancy, selectivity.

Let us dwell in more detail on the objectivity of the image of perception. The objectivity of the image of perception means:

Reality - a person believes in the existence of the object that is given to him in the image, i.e. he is convinced of the objective existence of this object. The presence of an image is called objectivity. Objectivity – a person experiences the image as externalized. With inadequate stimulation of one or another sense organ, images may appear that lack objectivity. In these cases they say “there is a ringing in the ear”, “sparks fell from the eyes”, etc. Perceptual systems work in such a way that they divide the world into separate objects.
Significance – images of perception devoid of meaning, when a person can describe in detail the object he is looking at, but is not able to identify it.
Polymodality is the organic unity of data of different modalities received from the senses.

The properties listed above do not exhaust the objectivity of the image. A person lives in an objective world, which differs from the world, the description of which can be found in physics textbooks. This is facilitated by the identity of the object and its image directly given in consciousness.

In the known world there are phenomena that cannot be perceived without special instruments. On the other hand, a huge variety of phenomena (such as smiling, aggressiveness) are easily and clearly perceived by us.

Basic properties of perception with examples

The mental process under consideration has the following properties:

Integrity is a characteristic of the final image that arises as a result of a combination of sensations. The final image is always complete. For example, a fly is perceived by a frog as an object of hunting only when the fly moves. If the fly is motionless, the frog does not try to catch it, since it does not perceive it as an insect.
Constancy - once acquired characteristics of a particular object, a person tends to correlate it with this particular object for a long time, accurately forming the final image. Minor changes in the characteristics of an item do not lead to difficulties with its classification. So, for example, a young man dates a tall girl who has blue eyes and blond hair. One day his girlfriend dyed her hair brunette. But he still perceives her as his partner; she has not become a stranger to him.
Subjectness - the ability to combine an object with a generic group according to key characteristics. For example, green, round, sweet - this is an apple. Green, long, with paws and a tail - this is a crocodile. The process of classifying items into generic groups may take some time. Sometimes, for a correct correlation, a person needs to come up and take a closer look at the object or pick it up.

Objectivity of perception

Structurality is reflected in the complexity of the perception process, which cannot be reduced simply to the sum of sensations from different senses. Replacing one of the key characteristics leads to the formation of a completely new image. So, for example, something large, iron and capable of floating is a ship. However, a large, iron one, capable of moving along railroad tracks is a train, not a ship.
Selectivity – selection of 1 object from the background. The scope of perception is limited. A child cannot play with many toys at the same time. First of all, he will take the brightest or largest toy. This turns on selectivity: the baby chooses the most eye-catching object by color or size. Having chosen his favorite toy from a variety, the child loses interest in the others for a while; only the best one is in his field of perception.
Apperception is the dependence of image formation on the individual characteristics of a person’s analytical systems and his life experience. The same object can be perceived differently by different people. So, for example, the Bible for believers is one of the main books of life, which sets out the rules of life and the foundations of society, but for an atheist it seems to be just a book that is no different from any other work of art.
Perception activity is a person’s ability to be aware of the surrounding reality and accumulate experience in using objects. For example, initially the baby does not know what function the spoon performs. He can knock on the wall with it, look at it like in a mirror, dig sand with it. One day his mother shows him that he can eat with a spoon. Having learned this, the baby understands that a spoon is a cutlery, and not a hammer, a mirror or a spatula.

Illusions associated with the structural features of the eye

Blind spot

The presence of a blind spot on the retina was first discovered in 1668 by the famous French physicist E. Mariotte. The fact is that the retina of the eye in the place where the optic nerve enters the eye does not have light-sensitive nerve fiber endings. Therefore, images of objects falling on this place of the retina are not transmitted to the brain, and therefore are not perceived. A blind spot, it would seem, should prevent us from seeing the entire object, but under normal conditions we do not notice this. In Fig. 8 the disappearing figure is replaced by a white background. Close your left eye and look with your right eye at the cross shown on the left, holding the drawing at a distance of 1520 cm from the eye. At a certain position of the drawing relative to the eye, the image of the oval ceases to be visible.

Rice. 8. The illusion of a disappearing figure

Irradiation

Many illusions are based on the irradiation effect (from the Latin irradio - to shine, to emit rays), which occurs when observing light figures and objects on a black background and vice versa. Look closely at the black square on a white background and the white square on a black background (Fig. 9). The white square appears larger than the black one. This is an optical illusion. In fact, the squares are exactly the same.

Examples of illusions of non-parallelism of parallel lines are also based on the irradiation effect (Fig. 10).

Rice. 9. A white square on a black background appears larger than a black square on a white background.

Rice. 10. A specially selected combination of various design elements creates the illusion of distorted parallel lines

Illusion of movement

Take a close look at the images in Fig. 11. You will see that the fish are swimming, the star is pulsating, and the circles are rotating.

Rice. 11. The illusion of moving objects

The most common perceptual errors in psychology

From psychological practice, several common situations can be identified that cause difficulties in perception. Here are the most common perception errors:

The illusion of control. If a person is interested in the outcome of a particular situation, he tends to overestimate his influence on it. This phenomenon was discovered by the American psychologist Langer, who studied the behavior of people playing the lottery. One group bought tickets themselves, and the second received them as a gift. The former categorically refused the offer to exchange tickets, as they believed that their personal choice affected the likelihood of winning. Zero risk preference. If a person is offered to reduce a minor risk to zero or significantly reduce a significant one, he is most likely to choose the first option. Although, it is much wiser to give preference to the second. Selective perception. For example, you have developed an opinion on a specific issue. You are looking for information and are becoming more and more convinced that you are right.

But the catch is that you pay attention only to the information that confirms that you are right, and leave the rest without attention. The illusion of transparency

This error of social perception occurs when a person finds himself in a situation in which it is necessary to lie. At the moment, it seems to him that everyone sees right through him, that everyone sees his insincerity. Attribution error. It consists in the fact that a person explains his own mistakes by objective circumstances, and the mistakes of others by their personal qualities. This approach impedes the individual's ability to take responsibility for his actions. The effect of moral trust. If a person has a strong positive reputation in society, others begin to think that he has neither vices nor bad intentions, which is often not true. Cascade of available information. If some information appears frequently in sources that reach a large audience, it is considered true. The older generation is influenced by television and the press, and the younger generation is influenced by social networks. Stockholm buyer syndrome. This is the name of the error of perception when a person justifies an expensive purchase, attributing all sorts of advantages to it and turning a blind eye to the shortcomings. Purchases made unnecessarily are justified in the same way. Belief in a just world. Since people are afraid to realize the injustice and chaos of the world around them, they tend to find logic even in the most terrible and absurd situations. Distorted perception of distortions. If you don’t find any vices or shortcomings in yourself, then you definitely have them. But you perceive them in a positive way, that is, distorted.

What it is

The personality quality of selectivity appeared in the course of evolution and initially concerned basic vital issues - a person chose what to eat so as not to get poisoned, where to sleep so as not to be in danger, where to move in order to improve his life. Physiological data still remains as an example of selective behavior, however, rational control of the mind over what is happening has also been added to this. So selectivity in terms of nutrition now comes down not only to the instinctive choice of food without poisons, but also to controlling the number of calories in it or the method of preparation and its harmfulness.

Selectivity concerns the choice of place of work and residence, as well as the model of building relationships with others.

A person physically cannot be present everywhere and pay equal attention to all external stimuli, which is why there is a need to choose the direction of his attention and the main vector of energy. Only in this way can you get any tangible results, and not rush between the most striking stimuli.

Spontaneously constructing one's activities and making elections based on the first internal impulses is a sign of a lack of selectivity. Such behavior can lead to rather disastrous consequences, despite the fact that in the process of following events in this way, quite vivid feelings are experienced, often characterized as a feeling of fullness of life and maximum emotions. However, succumbing to impulse, a person is able to suffer material collapse, miss serious and trusting relationships, and waste his life energy.

It is this quality that helps you achieve your goals in the shortest way; it is the basis for planning your future, where things that require special attention are laid out in advance.

Selectivity schedules our days to suit the priorities set, automatically leaving areas without energy that drain energy or interfere with implementation. But it helps not only to go towards something in the future, but also preserves existing life choices. Thus, a person who has given up drinking will not have a party in a bar, a girl who has decided to preserve her virginity will not live in a brothel, and a person with arachnophobia will not go to work in an entomology museum. All this speaks of our choices to maintain the picture of the world that is most pleasant and inspiring to us, but if such choices are violated, a complete distortion of life values and loss of our inner uniqueness is possible.

Selectivity is always a little more complex in its mechanism than simple decision-making based on desires or necessity. This quality allows you to calculate the possible consequences of a choice several steps ahead, so that desires and needs can change places. This is how an activity that is not the most pleasant is chosen, one that can lead to the fulfillment of a larger-scale desire than receiving pleasure in the present. In the same way, the choice can be made in favor of the current moment, when an assessment of internal resources will show almost complete depletion and the need for immediate replenishment, before a depressive disorder develops. That is, selectivity helps to choose the good in the long term and the integrity of the body and psyche.

This concept is closely connected with freedom and the manifestation of internal responsibility, since it represents a moment of choice. Any turn on the path of life implies certain consequences that follow, and then a person’s readiness to accept these changes, to be responsible for his actions and choices comes to the fore. Freedom has the character of an internal meaning, because even understanding what should be done does not always lead to action. Internal paralysis, focus on the opinions of others, takes away from a person his personal free manifestations of his choices, leaving selectivity exclusively as a theoretical quality.

Thanks to the quality of selectivity, one can judge a person’s taste in relation to any issues - from food to art, preferences for communication or pastime. This is a kind of marker of personality development and its needs, a reflection of opportunities and internal readiness to realize these opportunities. Every time people interact, selectivity allows you to assess how close and in the same circle a person is without asking unnecessary questions. In the effective space of elections, a person demonstrates as much as possible what he is focused on - developing or maintaining stability, luxury and self-indulgence, or asceticism for the sake of knowledge.

Constancy of form

Distortions in the perception of the shape of objects can be encountered when the orientation of objects or the subject itself changes. This type is one of the important properties of the visual system, since correct recognition of the shape of objects is a necessary condition for adequate human interaction with the outside world. One of the first to identify the role of observer knowledge and signs of distance in the constancy of form was Robert Thouless.

In 1931, a psychologist conducted an experiment, the essence of which was as follows: he asked subjects to evaluate and draw or select from a certain set of squares or circles that would be similar in shape to the proposed objects lying on a horizontal surface at different distances from the observer. As a result of the experiment, the subjects chose a stimulus form that did not coincide with either the projection form or its real form, but lay between them.

Imagery

Imagery is the ability to excite artistic images in the mind, based on associativity. For example, the sight of a sea shell evokes the ocean, the depths of the sea. Sometimes an object that has never been seen before contributes to the emergence of some close, long-familiar image.

In psychodiagnostics, to assess the emotional attitude to the world around us, the Rorschach test is used, which consists of ten standard tables with black-and-white and color symmetrical amorphous images (“Rorschach spots”). The subject is asked to answer the question about what is depicted or what what is depicted looks like (Fig. 17). Attitude to color is an indicator of emotional state, and the degree of originality of answers characterizes intelligence.

Rice. 17. Examples of Rorschach blots

Person's perception by person

The perception of a person by a person is a process of psychological cognition in conditions of direct communication between people. This process includes all levels of mental reflection, from sensation to thinking. When people first meet, they don’t really see each other as they really are and, of course, there are reasons for this.

Figure 1. Person's perception of a person. Author24 - online exchange of student work

Consciously or not, a person pays attention to gestures, posture, speech culture, manners, behavior, status, etc. In experimental conditions, psychologists A

A. Bodalev and V.N. Panferov were studying what makes the strongest impression when meeting someone, and it turned out that a person’s hairstyle is striking and memorable, which can change the face beyond recognition

Under experimental conditions, psychologists A.A. Bodalev and V.N. Panferov were studying what makes the strongest impression when meeting someone, and it turned out that a person’s hairstyle is striking and memorable, which can change the face beyond recognition.

Next, a person pays attention to the eyes, which can be different - kind, evil, prickly, cunning, radiant and set the person either in a trusting or wary and aggressive mood. Of course, the most attractive thing is a person’s smile, which can also be friendly, tense, kind, or angry.

If you want to please a person, D. Carnegie believed, then smile

Of course, the most attractive thing is a person’s smile, which can also be friendly, tense, kind, or angry. If you want to please a person, D. Carnegie believed, then smile.

The expression of a person’s face is formed by his facial expressions - some people have dynamic and varied facial expressions, while others have poor facial expressions, resulting in the impression of gloominess, secrecy and unfriendlyness.

Facial expressions and gestures carry a lot of information about a person. Facial expressions are regulated by the subconscious and are the most sincere informant about a person’s mental state.

Experts have noticed that a smoking partner, when solving a problem positively, releases smoke upward, and when solving a problem negatively, smoke is released downwards.

When a partner experiences tension, his shoulders rise; when relaxed, on the contrary, they fall.

A lowered head indicates isolation, and a raised head indicates intense self-control.

A head tilted to one side communicates curiosity and a desire to communicate.

Thus, in the perception of a person by a person, four methods of interpretation can be distinguished:

the emotional way is interpreted as sincere, good, beautiful;
analytical method - frowned eyebrows, sharp cheekbones characterize an angry person;
perceptual-associative method - the partner is similar to a harmful neighbor, therefore just as unpleasant;
the social-associative method ascribes social qualities to a person based on his appearance; if clothes are torn and dirty, then this shows the individual’s troubles and the desire to stay away from him.

Selectivity in relationships

Selectivity in people is a key point in building prosperous and happy relationships at any level. Regarding intimate relationships, selectivity involves preference for one particular person over other members of his gender. In many ways, this type of selectivity is due to the biological laws regulating the choice of partner for further reproduction of offspring. Accordingly, the role of somatic reactions and subconscious choices in this context is much greater than when choosing a job or place of residence. The mind can control certain manifestations, the strategy of courtship or ignoring, but the first impetus for paying attention is always biology.

The categories that influence selectivity in relationships include species and individual. The first presuppose traditions inherent in each representative of a certain ethnic group or group of people. There may also be certain external parameters and behavioral patterns that are considered favorable. A greater variety of options is provided by the individual level of choice, including the characteristics of the partner’s characterological manifestations, his external data, age and social characteristics.

Previously, selectivity in relationships based on social status was more categorical than in the modern world, but there are rules that cannot be circumvented.

No one will now prohibit marriage between workers and the intelligentsia, but a crack will appear quite soon when people are faced with the difference in their life philosophies and preferences, cultural background and education.

The difficulty with selectivity in relationships lies in the frequent contradiction between biological and social factors, between what the body wants and what the mind understands. These may be options when a bright passion flares up between people, but they have nothing to talk about, their countries are at war and everyone they know, and they themselves, after thinking logically, will condemn this connection. There are also frequent cases when everything converges at the level of the mind - both age and career success, people from the same society have many common themes, but are completely opposite to each other within the framework of physical perception.

But there are also relationships, in addition to intimate ones, where the moment of selectivity is also extremely important. This means not only who is considered a friend and how many such people there can be, but also the regulation of the degree of intimacy, the format of interaction, and the level of trust. Relationships are built in all spheres of human existence, and it can be impossible to remain friends with everyone not only due to personal hostility, but also from the perspective of competition or learning the difficulties of interaction with other people.

Those who are able to clearly filter their social circle can build a favorable emotional background, enlist support and reliability. People who do not know how to keep their distance, who allow everyone who knocks into their home or psychological space, end up in a poor mental state, and often also blamed for the problems. Excessive naivety and a small number of acquaintances significantly reduce selectivity in relationships; as the number of friends increases, the question of choice automatically arises.

The world is huge and it is impossible to devote equal time to everything and everyone who is present in it, and this is not required, because many characters and events simply do not deserve attention and, at best, simply do not affect life in any way. It makes sense to make a choice and go to those and where there is pleasure and development of one’s own personality, leaving everything else without guilt. This may seem like a betrayal at some points, especially if they are trying to manipulate a person’s opinion, but in this case, betrayal occurs even in the store, when instead of apples you take pears.

Constancy of color and light perception

Color constancy refers to the ability of vision to correct the perception of the color of objects, for example, in natural light at any time of the day or when the spectrum of their illumination changes, for example, when leaving a dark room. Experts have come to the conclusion that the mechanism of perceptual constancy is acquired.

This is evidenced by a number of studies. In one experiment, scientists conducted a study on people permanently living in a dense forest. Their perception is of interest, since they have not previously encountered objects at long distances. When observers were shown objects that were at a great distance from them, these objects appeared to them not as distant, but as small.

Similar violations of constancy can be seen in plains dwellers when they look down at objects from a height. In addition, from the top floor of a high-rise building, cars or passing people seem tiny to us. It is worth noting that from the age of two, a child begins to develop such types of constancy as sizes, shapes and colors. In addition, they tend to improve up to the age of fourteen.

Patterns of perception

Various types of perception have their own specific properties. But in addition to these characteristics, there are patterns of perception. Let's take a closer look at the main ones:

Objectivity. Associated with mental images of objects, perceived not as images, but as real objects. More precisely, objectivity reflects the degree of adequacy of the perception of images in reality.

Selectivity. Reflects the isolation of one of the objects of the general background. Here it is a frame of reference that evaluates other qualities of the perceived object. Selective perception is accompanied by the quality of centralization - this is a subjective expansion of the focus of attention and at the same time a reduction in the peripheral zone. At the level of significance of an object, a person most often distinguishes the main object and a larger object.

Note 1

The integrity of perception is the reflection of objects in the overall quality of elements, even in the absence of similar qualities in its individual parts.

Constancy. Shows a reflection of the basic qualities of objects regardless of changed perception conditions. For example, the perception of the shape of an object under different illumination and or depending on the distance to the object. This indicator reflects the observed object, regardless of the observation point.

Structurality. Shows the integrity and stability of some components of perceptual images. This pattern means that perception is not the sum of sensations. For example, when a melody is played, a person hears various sounds of musical instruments, and not general indicators.

Categoricality. Perception is associated with meaningfulness and generality. Objects are not perceived as given, but correspond to certain classes of objects. Here the relationship between perception and thinking is revealed, and in the case of generalization, the relationship between thinking and memory is revealed. The simplest way to comprehend is recognition. This is how the relationship between perception and memory is manifested. The process of recognition means perceiving a given object and comparing it with previous experience. Recognition can be of a generalized type, when the object belongs to general categories, and of a differentiated level, when the object is correlated with a single object.

For such recognition, the presence of specific features, its unique characteristics, is important. In the process of recognition, a person cannot identify all the features of an object; he uses their characteristic properties. For material objects, contours or characteristic combinations of lines matter

Recognition becomes more difficult when there are a small number of characteristic features of an object.

Apperception. Perception is associated with a person’s dependence on his previous experience, on his knowledge, hobbies and passions. This is how constant apperception manifests itself. With temporary apperception, a person’s perception depends on his emotional states.

What is selective or selective attention?

In this article
CogniFit Sara Morales Alonso will tell you what selective or selective attention is, how it can be tested using neuropsychological tests , and the role it plays in our daily lives. In addition, you will learn which parts of the brain are responsible for this cognitive process .
Selective attention

What is attention?

Attention is a cognitive process consisting of a complex system of components in constant and continuous interaction, which allows you to filter relevant information

depending on goals, intentions and motivation, as well as manage mental representations and form responses to stimuli.

The purpose of attention is to maintain the required level of vigilance, as well as to detect minor changes in stimuli, select relevant information and filter out irrelevant information, retain this information during the execution of an action, assess the level of vigilance at each point in time, including assessing the resources that need to be activated, engage and optimally distribute between activated mental representations and operations.

Because attention is a complex process, various models have been proposed over the years to explain the subcomponents of attention.

The best known is Solberg and Mateer's Hierarchical Model, which divides attention into: Arousal, Focused Attention, Sustained Attention, Selective or Selective Attention, Alternating or Alternating Attention, and Divided Attention.

In this article we will focus on selective attention and its importance in our daily lives.

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What is selective attention?

Let's imagine. What happens when we are reading a book and suddenly we hear the sound of an ambulance siren? Or when we want to find pants in our closet.

In both situations, our brain engages a mechanism by which it can isolate the target stimulus while ignoring all other surrounding stimuli.

This mechanism, which is part of the cognitive ability, is what is called selective or selective attention.

Selective attention

is
the ability to select the desired stimulus despite distractions
. To do this, our brain implements a process of habituation, thanks to which we do not pay attention to already known stimuli, focusing on one single task.

Brain regions involved in selective attention

The so-called Posterior (spatial-visual) attention system is responsible for selective attention in our brain. It includes areas of the anterior cingulate cortex, prefrontal dorsolateral region and caudate nucleus.

These areas of the brain communicate with each other using the neurotransmitter norepinephrine. Using this mechanism, we can filter and prioritize stimuli, classifying them by importance as meta-goals or external stimuli (relevant and distracting).

All this is possible thanks to the inhibition of unnecessary stimuli.

Have you ever wondered why, if, for example, you dream of buying a car of a certain brand, you only notice these car models on the street? To answer this question, we need to understand how our brain operates in such situations.

The brain implements an ordered scheme, where the priority is what a person needs at the moment

. In our example, this is a specific car model.

As a result, you pay attention to stimuli that correspond to your schema, which does not include information that you do not need, in this case, cars of other models that are on the street.

The brain selectively processes the target stimulus, inhibiting all distracting stimuli that appear, as a result of which we have the feeling that everything around us is somehow connected with the stimulus we are thinking about. All processes of inhibitory control in response to stimuli occur automatically through the process of habituation.

Explanatory models of selective attention

There are several models in psychology that explain how selective attention works. These models are wonderful practical tools for applying theory to interpret available information. All models that explain the functioning of selective attention are called filter models.

One of the most famous is the Broadbent filter model. According to Broadbent, information from all presented stimuli enters the sensory buffer (which is also known as short-term storage).

From all available information, a stimulus corresponding to the desired characteristics is selected, and the remaining information is filtered in order to prevent overload of the information processing system.

The most famous test developed by Broadbent to assess the ability of selective attention is the Dichotic Listening Method (task). The method involved Broadbent simultaneously sending various digital messages (three-digit numbers) to a person's right and left ear. Participants were then asked to repeat what they heard in their right and left ears.

Based on the results of this study, it was concluded that we are able to perceive only one channel of information at a time. All information that is filtered out depends on the characteristics of the stimulus. In addition, Broadbent suggested that the selection of information to which we pay attention occurs before its semantic analysis, in other words, before the analysis of the content of the message.

How selective attention works

It is important to identify the mechanisms our brain uses to control interference

and development of selective attention.

Distracting stimuli can have different characteristics, according to which it is easy to determine whether a given stimulus should be ignored or not:

Similarity
between a relevant and a distractor stimulus: a characteristic by which a distractor stimulus can attract our attention.
The spatial proximity of
both stimuli: it is important when they are presented in a common focus of attention, since the role of the distracting stimulus is more decisive.
Sensory modality
in which distracting stimuli are presented: It is important that, as a rule, distracting stimuli are presented acoustically, while we perceive the relevant stimulus visually.
Consistency between
the characteristics of relevant and distracting stimuli: those stimuli that were previously considered the target attract more attention.
Nature of
the distracting stimulus: Non-specific distracting stimuli can increase a person's level of concentration on a relevant stimulus when physiological activation is low. Conversely, when distracting stimuli are specific, interference arises from incongruence between contextual stimuli.

Impaired selective attention may lead to poor academic performance

Development of perception in children

The foundations of perception as a mental process are laid in infancy. However, at an early age, the baby’s perception is still very imperfect. In the first years of life, a child develops visual-tactile and visual-motor connections that arise in the process of manipulative activities with objects. Later, the manipulation turns to “feeling” a new object with the gaze - this indicates a new stage in the development of perception.

In preschool and primary school age, perception is determined by the impressionability and emotionality of children: involuntary perception prevails over voluntary perception.

The most difficult for children to master are the spatial properties of objects that are associated with visual, kinesthetic and tactile sensations. During preschool childhood, children successfully master concepts such as shape, size and size of objects, learn to determine the distance and spatial arrangement of objects relative to each other.

The perception of time poses serious difficulties for children of primary preschool age. They do not always correctly use the words “tomorrow”, “yesterday”, “later”, “earlier”.

Children's perception of time

As the child masters the surrounding world, as well as systematic schooling, the child’s conditioned reflex connections improve, which is an impetus for the development of perception.

The key role in the development of children's perception belongs to adults

Thus, parents and teachers teach children how to operate with objects, guide the child’s development process, and draw his attention to the essential characteristics of objects and phenomena of reality. An adult’s detailed and complete answers to a child’s questions about certain objects and phenomena will mean a lot.

Attention! To develop a child’s perception, it is necessary to organize his play and practical activities with objects. During the game, children learn to distinguish the basic properties of objects: color, weight, shape, size

In order for a child to study an object and understand its purpose, he needs to touch it and try to perform various actions with it. During the game and practical activities, optimal conditions are created for the interaction of analyzers, which leads to the formation of a holistic view of the world.

Children's artistic activities have enormous potential for the development of perceptual skills. In drawing from a model and in the process of sculpting, children learn to feel proportions, convey the shape and size of an object, and distinguish between shades of a palette. Thus, by older preschool age, the child’s perception becomes controlled and arbitrary.

During the period of schooling, perception is improved due to the variety of academic disciplines and various types of activities of children under the guidance of a teacher. To develop perceptual skills, the teacher must use visual aids: firstly, this stimulates the work of several analyzers at once, and secondly, it contributes to better memorization of information. Independent search work of students is of great importance.

Thus, perception plays an important role in human life. Perceptual skills formed at a high level ensure successful learning, harmonious personal development, and the ability for scientific creativity.

It is important for adults to remember that this ability will not be formed by itself; it is necessary to create conditions for the child to play with different objects from an early age. It is important to give sensory standards and cognitive interest the opportunity to develop in early childhood.

If these conditions are met, during school the child will be active and independent in learning about the world around him.

Brief perception of reality

Selectivity of Perception

(or selectivity of perception; English perceptual selectivity) - a property of perception consisting in the selection of something from the sensory field. objects (or their parts) and features. I.v. carried out through the mechanisms of attention - involuntary and voluntary. The isolated and therefore more clearly perceived object acts as a “figure”, the remaining objects - as its “background”. In its involuntary form, I. v. determined by the ratio of the physical properties of stimuli acting on the analyzer. First of all, stimuli are identified that have the greatest intensity, a sharp difference from others in one way or another (for example, color - in vision, texture - in touch, timbre - in hearing, etc.). However, in conditions of real activity, the decisive role in I. century. the task performed by a person, the attitude, the readiness to perceive certain objects in a certain way plays a role. I.v. It manifests itself especially clearly in such specific conditions as the perception of dual (and polysemantic) images, the so-called. speech cocktail (mixing several speech streams), objects merging with the background, etc. See Dichotic listening, Visual masking, Information selection, Strupp effect.

See the meaning of Selectivity of Perception in other dictionaries

Selectivity - selectivity, plural. no, w. Not right. vm. electivity. Establish the selectivity of the highest administration (from newspapers). Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Selectivity J. - 1. Abstract. noun by value adj.: selective (1). 2. outdated Election. Explanatory Dictionary by Efremova

Constancy of Perception - (lat. constans, constantis unchanging. constant) the relative stability of certain properties of the image of an object in the human mind, manifested when the conditions of its perception change. Large medical dictionary

Sexual Selectivity - thoughts, feelings, ideals, aspirations, value systems that in one way or another participate in the formation of the intimate sphere of an individual’s life. The basis of love is…….. Sexological encyclopedia

Constancy of Perception - (lat. constans, constantis unchanging, constant) the relative stability of certain properties of the image of an object in the human mind, manifested when the conditions of its perception change. Medical encyclopedia

Ability of Perception, Cognitive Ability - Philosophical meaning of the term: Sensory cognition, perception, representation, concept, idea (Cicero). Philosophical meaning of the term: Incomplete representation (Stoics, Seneca). Philosophical Dictionary

Phenomenology of Perception - (“Phenomenologie de la perception”. Paris, 1945) - the main work of Merleau-Ponty, which explores the problems of the specificity of the existence of existence (see Existence) and its relations…….. Philosophical Dictionary

Problems of perception

The occurrence of perceptual disturbances and errors is largely caused by certain key perceptual problems. Namely:

A person's ability to process information is not infinite. When forming an impression about a person or situation, a huge amount of data enters the brain. Not being able to process the entire stream, we sift through them, perceiving only those that are within the scope of our interests and contribute to the speedy achievement of our goals. Risk of false conclusions. When information is insufficient, we draw conclusions about a person or situation based on limited data, conjecturing non-existent parameters

And when an opinion has already been formed, we do not want to take into account additional information. Perception is a feedback system

Not only do we form impressions of people, but they also form impressions of us. By making guesses on this issue, we can draw incorrect conclusions, which leads to misunderstandings and conflict situations. Intentional distortion of information. Trying to make the best impression on others, a person gives deliberately false information about himself.

About this book

While cognitive psychologists have only outlined the boundaries of research, pointing out certain shortcomings of the traditional “rational” model of decision making, social psychologists have significantly enriched this field of knowledge, pushing its boundaries in many directions. Drawing on the insights of this new and original combination of disciplines, Scott Plouse shows that a social perspective on judgment and decision-making can provide practical advice for dealing with many of the mundane problems of everyday life. Plous not only provides an accessible overview of the research literature, his book offers a significant number of illustrative examples, new terms, and interesting findings.

What I think readers will find most compelling here is Plouse's combination of scholarship and interest in creating an effective set of communication guidelines for a wide range of audiences, from students to businessmen, doctors and national leaders. This book is full of pedagogical insights, new formulas that enrich old ideas, unique exercises in critical assessment that make learning fun, and it also presents provocative juxtapositions of seemingly unrelated situations. In short, it is rare to see the first book by a young scientist that offers so much and for so many on such pressing issues.

Philip Zimbardo

Properties of perception

Perceptual properties can be divided into two groups:

Volume of perception. How many objects can a person perceive during one fixation?
Accuracy of perception. To what extent does the emerging image correspond to the characteristics of the perceived object;
Completeness of perception. What is the degree of correspondence of the emerging image to the characteristics of the perceived object;
Speed of perception is the time required for adequate perception of an object or phenomenon.

The second group is characterized by properties inherent in all cognitive processes and characterizing the essence of the perception process. Among the “essential” properties of perception are:

Constancy of perception. It refers to the ability to perceive objects and see them in size, color, and shape as relatively constant in changing physical conditions of perception. Constancy of perception plays an important role in a person’s orientation in the surrounding world;
Meaningfulness of perception. This is the ability to attribute a certain meaning to a perceived object, designate it with a word, assign it to a certain linguistic category, etc. Meaningfulness of perception allows you to purposefully use objects and is achieved in the process of understanding their essence. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. relate to a certain group, class, certain concept;
Structurality of perception. Human perception has the ability to combine influencing stimuli into holistic and relatively simple structures. Structurality is associated with the integrity of perception;
Integrity of perception. Mental completion of the perceived elements of an object into a complete image. A holistic form of an object arises on the basis of conditioned reflexes developed during life and stored in human experience;
Objectivity of perception. The possibility of relating a visual image of perception to certain objects of the external world. The ability to reflect real world objects in the form of individual objects. This is not an innate property of perception; its emergence and improvement occurs in the process of ontogenesis;
Generalization of perception. Reflection of individual objects as a special manifestation of the general;
Selectivity of perception. From the entire diversity of the environment, highlighting some objects in comparison with others. Attitudes, interests, and needs of the individual determine the selectivity of perception. Selectivity reveals the activity of the perception process as a manifestation of the meaningful side of human activity.

Selectivity of perception

We have already seen that in order for our sensations to acquire meaning, our perception must act selectively. But how does this selection occur? To perceive something means to evaluate it. But we know from experience that attention is constantly switching. What determines which stimuli will attract our attention?

When explaining the focus of attention and selectivity of perception, psychologists talk about internal and external factors.

External factors. In the air conditioner example, we noted that the sound of the machine operating is at the edge of our consciousness until it disappears, which immediately attracts our attention. The most important stimulus is the one that causes a change in the environment. This change can take many forms. One of them is contrast (for example, between sound and silence). A man slightly taller than 2 m will attract more attention on the street than on the basketball court. A white-skinned TV news anchor wearing a see-through African shirt will attract more attention than if he were wearing a dark striped jacket. Large white space in a printed ad relative to the copy will have the same effect.

Another important type of change is movement in the environment. People automatically respond to visual movement. Even babies try to follow movements with their eyes, and moving neon signals rather than static ones will attract the attention of adults.

Repeated repetition of a stimulus also proves to be an effective way to attract our attention, a phenomenon that is especially widely used in advertising. In the course of studying by psychologists the so-called “simple presentation” effect, it was discovered that repetition not only attracts our attention, but also forms a more positive attitude towards a given stimulus. It follows that the more we know the brand name of a product, the higher, other things being equal, we will evaluate it and the more likely we are to buy this product. Although this connection is not an immutable law, it is already visible in the fact that widely advertised goods sell better if the choice in this situation is not of fundamental importance to us. People, when faced with racks filled with different dishwashing products, are likely to grab the first brand they know, since they all essentially do the same thing.

This principle appears to apply to other sectors of the economy as well, as illustrated by the following American example:

Several years ago, the insurance company Northwest Mutual Life conducted a national survey to determine how well people knew its name. Her name was 34th on the list of insurance companies. two weeks later she conducted a similar study again. This time her name was in third place. What contributed to such a dizzying rise from obscurity to fame? Two weeks of time and one million dollars spent on television advertising. Size can also be an important external factor. This is why newspapers and magazines use different sized fonts for their headlines: the more important the message, the larger the font.

Finally, stimulus intensity is used to attract our attention. Bright colors and loud sounds are widely used during public events - commercial, cultural or political - to attract crowds and attract attention. Many television commercials make an immediate announcement with a burst of bright colors or loud sounds; for the same reason, others begin with slow, black-and-white opening sequences.

Internal factors. The mentioned external factors refer to external incentives. However, the person perceiving them will not be a neutral observer; different people react differently to the same sensations. A woman might put on a sweater because the room is getting too cold, while her husband rushes to open the windows. She may not hear her alarm clock ringing for work, but she will instantly wake up at the first sound of her baby crying. If both read the same magazine, then she will look at materials about women's clothing, and he will look at materials about men's clothing.

Finding themselves in the same situation, a man and a woman bring different interests and motives to it. Their emotional and physical states are constantly changing, and unless they experience the same feelings at the same time, they will react differently. But the most important factor in the perception process is what exactly people expect to hear or see in a particular situation. A woman has a perceptual mindset to hear her baby cry. She expects this to happen. A man has a perceptual attitude towards the ringing of an alarm clock, which sounds at the same time in the morning, and is so strong that he wakes up a few seconds before the ringing.

See what “Selectivity of perception” is in other dictionaries:

SELECTIVITY OF PERCEPTION - (or selectivity of perception; English perceptual selectivity) property of perception, consisting in the selection of s.l. from the sensory field. objects (or their parts) and features. I.v. carried out through the mechanisms of involuntary attention and... ... Great Psychological Encyclopedia
SELECTIVITY OF PERCEPTION - the quality of perception to highlight a “figure from the background”, determined by the needs, orientation or experience of the individual (during apperception), will or characteristics of the perceived object... Modern educational process: basic concepts and terms
SELECTIVITY OF PERCEPTION - (selectivity) identification of any objects (or their parts) located in the sensory field of the perception field. AND . V. manifests itself in attention. The highlighted and therefore more clearly reflected object appears as a “figure”, other objects as ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
selectivity of perception (selectivity) - the selection of any objects (or their parts) located in the sensory field - in the perception zone. I.v. manifests itself in attention. the highlighted and therefore more clearly reflected object acts as a figure, the remaining objects act as its background... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
attention is the concentration of the subject’s activity at a given moment in time on any real or ideal object (object, event, image, reasoning, etc.). There are three types of V. The simplest and most genetically original is involuntary V... Great psychological encyclopedia
Attention - (Old Slavonic imati take) selectivity of perception of certain aspects of reality or concentration on certain activities, which the individual for some reason considers more significant for himself. * * * Mental activity, in... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology and Pedagogy
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR is a relatively new branch of marketing knowledge that claims to be independent, a key area of marketing research that characterizes the specific behavior of various (usually target) consumer groups... ... Marketing. Large explanatory dictionary
Need - Need, need is an internal state of psychological or functional feeling of insufficiency of something, manifests itself depending on situational factors. A striking example is thirst, an acute feeling of need for... ... Wikipedia
Needs - Need is the source of activity of living beings. The most ancient needs in evolutionary terms are genetic programs aimed at preserving life, reproduction and development of the environment. The more useful needs... ... Wikipedia
FLEC - (Fleck) Ludwik (1886, Lviv 1961, Jerusalem) physician, sociologist, historian of science and medicine in the 20-30s was engaged in research activities in the field of bacteriology. In 1935, he published his main work, The Emergence and Development of... ... Encyclopedia of Sociology

Selectivity of perception consists in the preferential selection of certain objects (or certain properties, characteristics, qualities of objects) in comparison with others.

Its physiological basis is the dominance of one focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex with simultaneous inhibition (due to negative induction) of other areas of the cortex.

This phenomenon is well illustrated by the following example: a person working with a microscope for the first time usually closes one eye, but soon becomes convinced that this is not necessary, since when looking carefully into the microscope, visual stimuli coming from the other eye are inhibited, and therefore, even Without closing the other eye, you can see only what is in the microscope's field of view.

Selectivity of perception is determined by both objective and subjective reasons. Objective reasons include the characteristics of the stimuli themselves (their strength, mobility, contrast), as well as the characteristics of the external conditions in which the object is perceived (its illumination, distance from us, etc.). Subjective reasons are, first of all, a person’s attitude towards the objects affecting him, depending on their meaning for him, on his needs and interests, as well as a person’s past experience and his mental state at the moment.

An extremely important role in the selectivity of perceptions is played by the fact that they are always included in the performance of some activity (production, scientific, educational, etc.) and are therefore always subordinate to the tasks of this activity. The same object can be perceived differently, depending on what task a person sets for himself. In the absence of a specific task, perception is very incomplete. That is why the images of such objects are unclear, even though they are often encountered, but the clear perception of which is not required by the tasks of the activity.

Often, for example, a person cannot answer the question of what numbers - Roman or Arabic - on the dial of his watch, and finds it difficult to remember the color of the plumage of birds that are well known to him. And, conversely, all this is clearly perceived if it is necessary for the activity being performed.

The dependence of perception on the tasks of activity can also be found in laboratory experiments. In one of them, a group of students was asked to draw a certain geometric figure, and the compass was given in assembled form. Another group was given the same compass, but disassembled, and the students had to assemble it from ready-made parts. After completing these tasks, the compass was removed, and both groups, unexpectedly for them, were asked to depict as accurately as possible the compass they had just used. It turned out that all the students of the first group, who used the assembled compass, depicted it inaccurately, without indicating a number of important details. The students of the second group, who assembled a compass from individual parts, depicted it correctly. The sharp difference in the accuracy of the image of the same object was determined by the difference in the tasks of the activity. In one case, the activity was aimed at drawing a figure, in the other, at assembling the parts of a compass.

The selectivity of perception is greatly influenced by the emotional attitude towards what is perceived. With an indifferent attitude towards an object, it is either not noticed at all, or its perception is superficial; if there is interest or an emotional relationship to the subject, it easily becomes an object of perception.

Perceptual selectivity can be either temporary or permanent. Temporal selectivity is determined by the needs that arise at the moment, the tasks and goals of the currently performed activity, and the emotional state at the moment. Sustained selectivity (in particular, professional) develops as a result of many years of human activity in a particular area. In the latter case, differences arise in the perception of the same objects by people of different professions or different ages. A non-technical person will notice far fewer details when examining a machine than a design engineer. An adult perceives a picture differently than a child; he not only better understands its content and meaning, but also, thanks to his knowledge and experience, perceives in it such details that children do not notice.

Consequently, a person’s past experience plays a significant role in perception. It has a strong influence not only on what exactly, but also on how a given person perceives. Of importance here is not only what has already been firmly established over a more or less long period of time in previous experience, but also what is temporary in nature and caused only by facts immediately preceding perception.

A significant impact on perception is exerted by the so-called attitude, which develops under the influence of immediately preceding perceptions and represents a kind of readiness to perceive a newly shown object in a certain way, depending on the immediately preceding perceptions. This phenomenon has been widely studied by the Soviet psychologist Uznadze and his colleagues and characterizes one of the most essential features of perception - the dependence of perception on the state of the perceiving subject, in turn caused by previous influences on him.

An example of the formation of an installation can be the following experiments, the methodology of which (as well as many similar ones) was developed by Uznadze. The subject is asked to perceive two unequal objects 15-20 times in a row (for example, two balls of different volumes that are placed in his hands, or two different paper mugs that he perceives visually). After this, the subject is presented with two equal objects (two identical balls, two identical paper circles), and he must (just as when showing unequal objects) say whether they are the same or not, and if they are unequal, then which one is larger ( or less). It turns out that in these cases objects are usually assessed as unequal, and two types of responses are observed: some subjects evaluate objects in accordance with the previous perception of unequal objects (i.e., the object that is on the same side that it occupied before is considered smaller really a smaller object), while others reveal the opposite (contrasting) attitude, evaluating as smaller the object that is now in the place of the larger object.

Experiments have shown that if the specified attitude is developed in any one area (for example, visual), then it is subsequently revealed in other areas (for example, when touching objects). Its influence is therefore broad, extending to the operation of a number of analyzers.

Physiologically, this kind of attitude can be considered as one of the cases of the formation and functioning of a dynamic stereotype that develops under the influence of a certain system of stimuli.

Errors in decision making

Errors in perceiving the situation when making decisions deserve special attention. Namely:

Pendulum solutions. This is a phenomenon in which, having realized the error of his decision, a person tries to return to his original state, believing that from the initial position he can influence the situation and correct it.
Duplicate solutions. Finding himself in new conditions, a person tries to adapt the decisions he makes to the established situation.
Conflicting decisions. Unlike the previous situation, a person in new conditions tries to make decisions that completely contradict the previously established and established way of life.
Adventurous solutions. Due to an incomplete perception of reality or an overestimation of one’s own capabilities, a person makes a decision that most likely will not be implemented or will fail.
Late decisions. Fearing making a mistake, a person thinks for a long time, missing the right time to act. As a result, when a decision is finally made, it can no longer affect anything and has no significant significance.
Demotivating decisions. Instead of lifting the spirits of those around him and his own spirit, the person takes a position that brings everyone down.
Template solutions. A person constantly acts according to a scheme developed over time, without analyzing its effectiveness.
Underestimation of risk. A person is aware of threats and risks, but prefers to think that this will not happen to him.