Skeptic: who is he, pros and cons. Understanding the phenomenon

A skeptic is a person who does not trust rumors, disseminated information, dubious ideas that he himself has not verified for veracity. The meaning of the word skeptic comes from the Greek "skeptikos". Greek skeptics represented a philosophical school in which they raised doubts about the real possibilities of thinking and doubts about the reliability of truth. Ancient philosophers of skepticism were able to find the weak side in the theories of knowledge and logic of various philosophical schools, as well as find the weak points of these teachings and criticize them.

What does a skeptic mean in the current understanding? The meaning of the word skeptic in its modern interpretation speaks of a person who constantly doubts the reliability of everything around him, so his attitude is permeated with mistrust.

A skeptic is a person who will never say that he knows exactly the right answer to anything. He never rejects or immediately takes anything for granted. He first examines the issue that has arisen, checks incoming information, looks for arguments, and only after analyzing all this does he express his own judgment and conclusions.

Naturally, it is impossible for one person to fully study all the information, to comprehend all the circumstances and aspects, but he does not need this. A stock of knowledge is required just enough to allow one to come to a common preliminary opinion. As long as the judgment is consistent with the facts, it will remain valid. But with the arrival of new arguments and additional information, the judgment may change.

It is quite difficult to influence the opinion of a skeptical person. He constantly explores new beliefs and not-so-new principles that he has, reflects, rechecks and evaluates for correctness. Thus, he conducts an “audit” of his own life attitudes.

A person who is characterized by healthy skepticism can correctly and without emotion evaluate almost any phenomenon. Evaluate current events, actions done in the past, relationships, and various theories.

A skeptic always uses a balanced approach in his actions and does not give in to emerging emotions, so he is able to control his life.

Who is a skeptic in simple words?

A skeptic is a type of person who tends to question both the conclusions of others and his own, knows how to see weaknesses in every argument and tries to check and confirm every detail in the picture of the world. It is difficult to influence the opinion of a skeptic using unfounded statements without irrefutable evidence. Moreover, they are not prone to unjustified optimism and allow their primary feelings to prevail over common sense.

The thought process in the skeptic's head does not stop. He or she constantly thinks about issues that he considers important, argues and reasons with himself, and reconsiders his attitude towards life. He also regularly rethinks his own actions and past mistakes. Perhaps this explains Honoré de Balzac's famous statement that “skeptics are the most conscientious people.”

It is interesting that the skeptics themselves are not ready to claim that they have accurate or sufficiently complete information. They analyze everything, look for arguments and evidence, and only after detailed self-examination do they express their own opinion. Of course, it is difficult for one person to study all the necessary information. The skeptic understands this, so he sees no problem in changing his point of view after receiving new significant facts.

A skeptical person has a very difficult time believing the information around him.

Concept of skepticism

The etymology of the word itself does not imply constant denial, doubt for the sake of doubt. The word comes from the Greek word “skepticos” (skeptikos), which is translated as exploring or considering (there is a version that the translation means - to look around, look around). Skepticism arose on the wave when philosophy was elevated to a cult, and all the statements of scientists of that time were perceived as the ultimate truth. The new philosophy aimed to analyze popular postulates and rethink them.

Skeptics focused on the fact that human knowledge is relative and a philosopher does not have the right to defend his dogmas as the only correct ones. At that time, the doctrine played a huge role, actively fighting dogmatism

Curious! Skepticism can be considered the cradle of the dialectic of knowledge - which later became classical in German philosophy, symbolizing the teachings of the legendary Georg Friedrich Hegel.

Over time, negative consequences appeared:

• pluralism of social norms of society (they began to be questioned and rejected);
• neglect of individual human values;
• favor, benefit in the name of personal gain.

As a result, skepticism turned out to be a contradictory concept by nature: some began to search in depth for the truth, while others made total ignorance and even immoral behavior an ideal.

Skeptical as it is?

In the ordinary sense of the word, to be a skeptic is to doubt something. The philosophical type of skepticism is distinguished by the fact that it allows for the possibility of reliable knowledge. Scientific skepticism is a clear and consistent opposition to theories that have not received experimental confirmation.

Any new information can be perceived in different ways:

• with negative distrust (definitely negative);
• with a reasonable amount of skepticism;
• with unconditional trust (absolutely positive).

However, it is recommended not to go to extremes and take a balanced middle position (this is where skepticism lies).

Portrait of skeptics

A skeptic always stands out in a company or group of people. Therefore, we can highlight those features that correspond to the image (portrait) of a skeptic:

1. This personality is characterized by weak emotionality. A skeptic does not give in to emotions, is able to suppress them, and conduct cold analysis;
2. A skeptical person can almost always be seen with a collected and serious face, and a smile is very rare;
3. Outside the sphere of understanding of such a person are extraterrestrial forces and supernatural events, representatives of other planets;
4. Such a person cannot calmly accept religious beliefs;
5. Finding himself in an extreme situation, such a person will be in a stupor, because in order to make a decision, it is necessary to conduct a deep analysis, and there is no time for this;
6. The traits of a skeptic left a direct imprint on his relationships with people. At work he is considered a nerd. His willingness to criticize everyone around him and question everything causes a negative reaction from his colleagues. This leads to loneliness for the skeptic;
7. An arrogant, inflated sense of self-worth may develop;
8. A skeptical person will not rely on other people's opinions and will not compromise;
9. Building a romantic relationship with a pronounced skeptic is very problematic. A person who doubts everything will repeatedly check every action of a potential partner. It will be extremely difficult for a skeptic to trust someone and open up.

The positive qualities of such a character include:

Inability to manipulate such a person, techniques of suggestion are ineffective against him

The need for evidence allows them to develop the nature of the discovery

Such people strive for precision and diligence.

A skeptic will almost never become a victim of scammers; he can easily expose any deception

They do not commit impulsive actions and are free from rash decisions.

Such a person will never follow the crowd, so as not to deviate from the mainstream; he can go against established opinion

Cons of being a skeptic

The most noticeable shortcomings are in interpersonal relationships. Extreme lack of trust and wariness greatly complicates communication and relationships with relatives, friends and the other sex. Pickiness and exactingness tire the interlocutor. Not everyone retains the source of knowledge in memory and cannot refer to facts. Especially generally accepted truths. These people themselves are sometimes not happy with their disposition. After all, when a quick decision is required, unnecessary doubts are not at all helpful. From this we can conclude that skepticism does not always protect, but can also cause difficulties.

How did the term come about?

Skepticism originally appeared as a doctrine in ancient Greek philosophy. Xenophanes was one of its founders. Significant contributions to the doctrine were made by Pyrrho, Aeneasides, Agrippa, Arcselaus and Sextus Empiricus. Philosophical skepticism means doubt about the possibility of reliable knowledge. Proponents of this doctrine were of the opinion that one should be guided by “reasonable probability” rather than by the pursuit of truth. In any situation you need to rely on common sense, which is formed in everyday life.

During the Renaissance, a new interest in ancient Greek philosophical teachings arose, and philosophers again became interested in ancient skepticism. This was a period when knowledge increased at an unprecedented rate. Therefore, a skeptical attitude towards testing knowledge and a balanced approach to their interpretation and systematization are necessary.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a scientific and technological revolution began, which contributed to the revival of interest in philosophical skepticism. If earlier this trend was used mainly in philosophy, now it has spread to all scientific research due to the urgent need for reliable knowledge.

Scientific skepticism emerged in the 1970s, driven by growing interest in the paranormal. Around this time, the understanding of what a skeptic is took on its modern form. The word came to be used not only to refer to philosophical skeptics, but to anyone who believed that any information must be verified and confirmed to be considered reliable.

In 1992, the International Society of Skeptics was founded, dedicated to refuting various anti-scientific and pseudoscientific theories. They publish their own magazine, Skeptic, organize conferences, and are active on the Internet. Their main task is to expose astrologers, ufologists, homeopaths and other supporters of unconventional scientific trends.

The edges of skepticism.

The vibrant, rich phenomenon of skepticism is directly related to human nature. This is a powerful ancient philosophical movement, a method of scientific knowledge and a part of human life. In the 21st century, several approaches to classifying forms of skepticism have emerged. Here is one of the classifications based on the characteristics of the thought process:

Philosophical skepticism does not involve doubt for the sake of doubt. The initial goal of the new direction was to refrain from decisive and final statements. Therefore, skepticism is precisely the search for truth, and not its denial, as this philosophical trend is often interpreted.

Scientific skepticism is needed in order to test and criticize convenient but unsubstantiated pseudoscientific theories. The complex and multifaceted phenomenon of scientific skepticism contains two components of scientific research: on the one hand, the desire for evidence, on the other, doubt.

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Religious skepticism is doubt about the truth of religious teachings or in relation to religious figures, not associated with the denial of religion in general. People become religious skeptics for various reasons. Some have had unpleasant experiences with religious teachings in the past. The latter are skeptical about unproven spiritual truths. Still others study all the dogmas and remain perplexed by contradictory creeds.

Neutral skepticism neither affirms nor refutes anything. He simply expresses his point of view without waiting for others to agree or disagree with the arguments. To put it another way, he prefers to remain silent rather than speak.

Healthy skepticism is more of a person’s thinking style or worldview. It is the involvement and activity of the mind. So being a skeptic is a wise choice. If you want to build a career, earn respect, make the world a safer and smarter place, critical thinking will help you.

How to recognize a skeptic?

People with a skeptical attitude are not particularly emotional. They deliberately suppress their emotions so that they do not interfere with the analysis of information. The skeptic's face is usually calm and serious. They rarely smile because they tend to think more carefully about what they hear and see. A skeptic can be quite harsh in communication. He or she is not afraid to offend because he or she believes that honesty and directness are more important than emotions. The personality type of a skeptic is generally phlegmatic or melancholic.

Some researchers say that skeptical people have certain facial features: they are thin, their faces are pointed. However, you should not focus your attention on these baits, since a skeptic is about character and personality, and not about appearance.

Sometimes a skeptic is credited with the traits of a pessimist. This is an erroneous judgment because a pessimist does not trust good news and readily believes bad news. A skeptic, on the other hand, tends to doubt any information that comes from outside. He strives to establish the truth, while a pessimist looks for the negative.

Skeptics usually deny religious beliefs because no one can provide them with rational arguments to support the dogmas proposed by the religion. They also deny all supernatural and extraterrestrial phenomena that cannot be supported by material evidence.

There is also the concept of “religious skepticism.” She allows doubt in individual statements, but does not deny religion as a whole.

A skeptic accepts only those arguments whose truth is beyond doubt. He is able to accept the existence of aliens or other supernatural beings and phenomena, but only after receiving comprehensive evidence. He also never follows his own intuition and carefully considers all arguments when making a decision. This leads to some slowness in action, even in emergency situations.

Skeptics do not believe in inexplicable things, they are agnostics and require evidence

How is skepticism different from agnosticism?

Essentially, agnosticism arose from skepticism, so there is much in common between the two schools of thought. And yet they cannot be identified or combined, since there are a number of fundamental differences. Agnosticism assumes that human knowledge is limited, but does not deny the possibility of a reliable understanding of how accurately existing knowledge corresponds to reality.

Skepticism comes from the fact that it is impossible to reliably distinguish reality from fiction. All our knowledge was obtained through unreliable means of sensory cognition, which means it can be unreliable, and there is no way to verify it. If agnosticism considers our cognitive abilities to be limited, then skepticism generally excludes the possibility of assessing with any accuracy the reliability of knowledge obtained empirically.

Models of interaction between a skeptic and others

The characteristics of a skeptic are reflected in the nature of his relationships with other people. It is often referred to as an environmental nuisance. The tendency to criticize and doubt regularly causes negative reactions from others and leads to loneliness. Against this background, skepticism is accompanied by the development of arrogance and increased self-esteem.

It is difficult for a skeptic to rely on the opinions of other people. He rarely accepts authority without a compelling reason that he can verify personally. He doesn't compromise. However, if a person gains respect in his eyes for good reasons, he shows loyalty and devotion. Building a lasting romantic relationship with a true skeptic is quite problematic. Such a phenomenon as love at first sight can be immediately forgotten. A doubter will repeatedly check and double-check every step and gesture of a potential partner. It is unlikely that he will be able to completely open up and trust another person.

Scientific skeptics

Like any scientist, a scientific skeptic attempts to evaluate a hypothesis based on testability and falsifiability, rather than accepting the hypothesis at face value. Scientific skeptics often direct their criticism towards hypotheses, theories and teachings that are dubious or clearly contrary to generally accepted science. Popular objects of criticism by scientific skeptics are UFOs, astrology, homeopathy, parapsychology and other modern myths and pseudosciences.

Many scientific skeptics are atheists or agnostics, but some (like Martin Gardner) believe in God.

The most famous scientific skeptics are Isaac Asimov, James Randi, Martin Gardner, Carl Sagan, Richard Dawkins, Lawrence Krauss, Steven Weinberg and many others.

How to communicate with a skeptic?

If we understand who the skeptic is, then establishing contact with him is not difficult. Let's remember that a skeptic is always interested in an interlocutor who is ready to argue and defend his point of view with the help of arguments and facts. He loves clear arguments and justifications that do not raise doubts. Before you propose to him, think carefully about the pitfalls.

Having a skeptic on your team is always helpful. He calculates all possible scenarios, so it is much more difficult to get into trouble with him. The romantics and idealists in your team may feel offended by how harshly he speaks of them. However, this is a rational approach to avoid unfavorable developments.

Ancient followers

When Pyrrho died, his ideological banner was taken up by his contemporary Timon. He was a poet, prose writer and has been preserved in history as the author of “sills” - satirical works. In his sills he ridiculed all philosophical movements except Pyrrhonism, the teachings of Protagoras and Democritus. Timon widely propagated Pyrrho's postulates, calling on everyone to reconsider their values ​​and achieve bliss. After the death of the writer, the school of skepticism stopped in its development.

A joke is told about Pyrrho. One day, the ship on which the scientist was traveling was caught in a storm. People began to panic, and only the ship's pig remained calm, continuing to serenely slurp from the trough. “This is how a true philosopher should behave,” said Pyrrho, pointing to the pig

Skeptic: types

Each skeptic has a set of similar traits, he also has a certain worldview, but, nevertheless, such individuals can be divided into three groups. We would like to separate each type separately and describe the key points of their behavior and vision of the world around them.

Cynical people

A cynical person is a personality type called a skeptic. This person does not believe that people do things for selfless reasons. Cynicism develops in adulthood as a reaction to the situations we encounter. A skeptic has a different opinion and is characterized by mistrust and a search for ulterior motives. Children are never cynical.

Nihilism

Nihilism is another extreme form of skepticism. It is an approach to life that denies everything the skeptic knows or learns. Adherents of this type of thinking reject all truths, even proven ones. They don't form their own opinions because they don't trust everything. Nihilism is destructive because it implies a negative attitude towards all aspects of social life.

Scientific skepticism

Scientific skepticism is the most productive type. This is what all science is based on. This type is characterized by the denial of everything that is not confirmed by experience. Such a skeptic is a good scientist. Believe me, society needs such people, but communicating with them is very difficult.

Depending on personality characteristics, there are three main types of skeptics:

Types are the essence and principles of skepticism.

At the moment, we can clearly distinguish three main directions in the course of skepticism, which in turn are based on one basic principle: if there is no reliable evidence for something, then it cannot be a fact. It follows that any information should be treated as doubtful until it is confirmed or refuted.

Three types of skepticism:

• Scientific skepticism;
• Philosophical skepticism;
• Religious skepticism.

Areas of action for skeptics

As a rule, skepticism is pronounced in the following areas of public life.

Everyday skepticism

As for skepticism in everyday life, the basic one can be considered a purely philosophical approach, which recommends doubting the reliability of knowledge. Even what is recognized by authoritative scientific circles! However, we are not talking about complete denial or unwillingness to recognize the achievements of scientists.

On the contrary, this concept allows for unique research and new results in areas that once seemed “fully explored.” This is a very valuable quality of skepticism - the ability for introspection and self-improvement, which allows you to avoid stagnation.

Unfortunately, at the level of the average person, skepticism often develops into satisfied disbelief. The person adopts a position of disbelief and refuses to accept any arguments, calling his behavior an “extension of cognitive experience.” But isn't doubting the truth of any proposition self-contradictory?

Religious skepticism

When it comes to religious skepticism, the issue is quite simple. Religious skeptics are people who doubt certain religious claims or dogmas. For example, they may doubt the reality of certain miracles or the veracity of the “facts” described in sacred texts. It is worth noting that religious skeptics are not always atheists. A person can be quite religious, but at the same time disagree with some statements from the concept of his faith.

Philosophical skepticism

Philosophical skepticism has a more abstract meaning than scientific skepticism. Philosophical skeptics refrain from asserting the absolute truth of things, believing that everyone can be wrong. Sometimes this type of skepticism is called Pyrrhonism, since the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho of Elis is considered its founder.

Simply put, the concept of philosophical skepticism can be defined as doubt that reliable knowledge exists at all.

Scientific skepticism

This branch of skepticism is based on doubts about various scientific or near-scientific statements. For example, scientific skeptics ask:

• The effectiveness of homeopathy and alternative methods of treatment;
• The existence of telekinesis, telepathy and so on;
• The existence of various supernatural entities (spirits, spiritualists, angels, deities, etc.);
• Usefulness of cryptozoology and ufology;
• Popular Psychology Claims;
• The reality of pseudoscientific myths and much more.

The main goal of scientific skepticism is to prove or disprove information that is presented under “scientific sauce.”

Basic ideas of skepticism

The main ideas of skepticism include the following theses:

• even if knowledge looks achievable and reliable, it cannot be recognized as such;
• both absolute knowledge and any reliable knowledge in general are inaccessible to man (since it was obtained through empirical knowledge, which cannot be considered an absolutely reliable source);
• a person does not have access to reliable knowledge about any metaphysical phenomena and objects (God, the world, causality, etc.);
• any hypothesis needs to be tested, and no test can be considered sufficient or final;
• none of the methods of scientific knowledge can provide reliable knowledge about objective reality;
• all knowledge available to mankind is only assumptions and hypotheses that cannot be proven;
• the philosopher must refrain from making any final judgments.

Skepticism considers all our knowledge relative and requires its critical rethinking. In this sense, it is opposed to dogmatism - an uncritical way of thinking that is based on dogma. Despite the fact that dogmatism is characteristic primarily of religions, ancient skeptics called all philosophers who put forward and defended any statements as dogmatists.

Skepticism in philosophy

Skepticism appeared in philosophy around the 5th century BC. However, it is believed that its creator was the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho of Aelis (c. 360 - c. 270 BC).

Since ancient times, skeptical philosophy has shaped arguments against the dogmatic claims of philosophers, scientists, and others. Thus, during the development of ancient philosophy and science, doubts arose about the truth of the basic worldviews of that period.

Skepticism is considered one of the most important philosophical schools of the Hellenistic period. Epicureanism and Stoicism were also very important.

Representatives of skepticism

Famous skeptical philosophers include names such as:

• Pyrrho of Aelis;
• Timon from Phliuntu;
• Rene Descartes;
• Marcus Tullius Cicero;
• Aenesidemus;
• Carneades;
• Sextus Empiricus;
• Arcesilaus.

Skepticism and agnosticism

The connection between skepticism and agnosticism is that agnosticism is similar to skepticism about anything related to religion.

Agnosticism is a worldview in which knowledge of the existence or non-existence of God(s) is impossible; it can be seen as a cross between theism and atheism.

Agnosticism advocates a worldview in which our knowledge is limited to the physical world and is incapable of knowing anything beyond the supernatural.

Hume's skepticism

Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711 - 1776) left his mark on the history of philosophy with his rather bold, skeptical approach to many philosophical topics. In epistemology, for example, he challenged accepted worldviews about personhood. According to Hume, there is no permanent self that does not change over time.

David Hume did not accept traditional explanations of causation; he argued that our ideas about causation are based not on the simple perception of causal forces in the external world, but on our standards of thinking.

Montaigne's skepticism

In the 16th century, the French writer and philosopher Michel de Montaigne (1533 - 1592) contributed to the revival of skepticism. He greatly influenced such important figures in philosophy as René Descartes and Blaise Pascal.

In his writings on human knowledge, Montaigne notes that “in different ways a person achieves the same goal:

1. the same human behavior can lead to opposite results;
2. Opposite patterns of behavior can lead to the same result.

He also believed that a person is always guided by selfishness in his actions and thoughts. Montaigne already argued that the main goals of every person’s existence are to achieve harmony and happiness.

Questions of skepticism in philosophy are raised quite often

What is skepticism?

Skepticism is a tendency to refrain from categorical judgments, a critical and distrustful attitude towards any generally accepted phenomenon or information imposed from outside that is not confirmed and proven. The word comes from the Greek words “Scepsis” - “doubt” and “Scepticos” - “looking at, observing”. That is, skepticism encourages not so much to doubt as to study and investigate. To be a skeptic means to have a healthy dose of mistrust and common sense to distinguish the real from the fake.

Skepticism began with the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Pyrrho, founded in the first century BC. The teaching is based on the statement: “To think means to doubt. It is not human nature to be sure of anything.” The skeptic follows the path of doubt: he comprehends all the answer options, then comes to the conclusion that all options are equivalent. As a result, the skeptic withholds judgment because he does not know which statement is true. According to modern scientists, this is the most tolerant teaching that does not deny the correctness of other ideologies.

Skepticism has its advantages and disadvantages . Conservatism and a thirst for truth coexist in him at the same time. On the one hand, this is a kind of force field that protects people from pseudo-facts, bad ideas, excessive gullibility, and manipulation. But a skeptical view can be a manifestation of passivity, cynicism, suspicion, and fear of losing one’s point of view.

So the main disadvantage is in extremes. Lack of criticality makes a person an easy target for scammers. Unhealthy skepticism trusts nothing without proof. Therefore, he does not believe in God, love, friendship.

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Is it good or bad to be a skeptic?

The main question of this topic is: is it good to be a skeptic? Definitely better than a naive simpleton. Perhaps constant doubts periodically complicate life, but they protect a person from rash actions.

Pros of being a skeptic

The critical thinking of a skeptic gives him certain advantages. It is almost impossible to manipulate him, it is impossible to impose wrong views on him. Skeptics almost never become victims of scammers; they do not trust advertising and quickly detect poorly disguised scams and deceptions. They are constantly in search of the truth and are willing to spend enormous effort to find it. These qualities often help them succeed in life.

A skeptic thinks logically, trying to subordinate every action to common sense, so he is not alien to impulsive actions and decisions. He does not strive to “be like everyone else” and does not follow trends. He is a skeptic who usually swims alone against the tide, resisting established stereotypes and trying to open the eyes of others. The ability to deeply analyze information makes skeptics excellent auditors, inspectors, investigators, lawyers and, of course, scientists.

Cons of being a skeptic

The most problematic area for skeptics is human relationships. They are suspicious and distrustful and do not hesitate to openly express their doubts. Their pettiness often irritates their interlocutors. When they encounter a questionable statement, they ask, “Where did you read that? Such questions cause a negative reaction because people are not ready to answer them and perceive them as a sign of mistrust.

The skeptic himself understands perfectly well that his meticulousness spoils his relationships with people, but he cannot do anything about it. He is also aware of his slowness in making important decisions and sometimes envies impulsive people who do not have time to think. Skepticism is useful when making long-term plans for the future, but interferes with making urgent decisions.

Sextus Empric – physician and follower

The most famous follower of Pyrrho is Sextus Empiricus, a physician and learned philosopher. He became the author of the popular expression: “The mills grind the gods slowly, but they grind diligently.” Sextus Empiricus published the book “Pyrrhon’s Propositions,” which to this day serves as a textbook for everyone who understands philosophy as a science.

Distinctive features of the works of the Empiricist:

• close relationships with medicine;
• the philosopher considered it unacceptable to promote skepticism in a separate direction, and to confuse it and compare it with other movements;
• the encyclopedic nature of the presentation of all information: the philosopher presented his thoughts in great detail and did not ignore any detail.

Sextus Empiricus considered “phenomenon” to be the main principle of skepticism and actively studied all phenomena empirically (which is why he received his pseudonym). The subject of the scientist’s study was various sciences, ranging from medicine, zoology, physics, and even meteorite falls. Empiricist's works were highly praised for their thoroughness. Later, many philosophers willingly drew arguments from the works of Sextus. The research was awarded the honorary title of “general and summative of all skepticism.”

How to become a skeptic

To become a skeptic, you need to learn to filter all the information you hear, stop being gullible, and check everything.

In order to develop skepticism, you need to follow certain guidelines.

1. When you are given information, you must check it, find some arguments, check everything.
2. It is worth considering that when communicating with any person you can come across fairy tales, people can invent something, fantasize. Therefore, you must learn to ask follow-up questions that will allow you to get to the truth. For example, if someone tells you that they heard something somewhere, they should explain where and when they heard it, and who exactly was the source of the information.
3. If a suspicious person decides to share information with you, you should not trust his words. Be sure to double-check everything, ask people you trust, or you can check from additional sources.
4. You should not be deceived by any promotions or discounts. Then you will understand that you were wrong. If you want to take part in any lottery, get full information about the organizer, the results of previous promotions, and what gifts were given.
5. To become a skeptic, you need to develop skeptical thinking. You must understand that scientific theories can also turn out to be wrong after some time. A skeptic constantly analyzes and verifies what he hears. This helps to be careful and identify misinformation. You have to think about everything you hear.
6. You should only check the veracity of other people's statements if it makes sense to do so. If someone claims that it is impossible to jump out of a moving car and then jump back into it, you should not test that claim by attempting those actions. There are many ideas that can be strange or dangerous. Skepticism helps protect against possible negative factors.

Sometimes skepticism can be useful in a certain profession or area of ​​human activity

General information

A skeptic is a person who will not trust rumors or unverified information. This word has Greek roots, coming from “skeptikos”. Philosophers from Greece viewed the concept of skepticism as doubt about the capabilities of human thinking. Philosophers of antiquity found flaws in theories of knowledge, identified vulnerabilities, and called everything into question.

If we consider the modern vision, then a skeptic is a person who is always unsure of something, doubts the reliability of his environment, his attitude towards people is filled with mistrust. He will not declare that he knows the answer to this or that question, he will not reject something from the first minute, but he will not believe everything he hears either. First, he will carefully analyze the exciting issue, check the information, and find arguments, if any. Only after analyzing everything, speak about your opinion, share your judgments. Of course, one individual is not able to study all possible information and consider all the circumstances, but he does not need this. A person needs a certain amount of knowledge, which will be enough to come to the right opinion, which is, in fact, preliminary.

It is almost impossible to influence the opinion of such a person. Such a person always uses a balanced approach and does not give in to any emotions. This is why a skeptic manages to keep his life under control.

In a situation where everyone around is delighted with some news, a skeptical person will remain serious until evidence of this event is found. Such a person is particularly distrustful of positive, joyful news, but at the same time, he will not rush to give in to despondency in the case of negative news. In fact, a skeptic never obeys the first emotions that arise in his head; at first, his opinion remains neutral.

Sometimes the concept of pessimism is considered as a synonym for skepticism. Due to the characteristic gloominess, a skeptic can be confused with a pessimist. But, if the latter sees the bad in everything and always expects only a negative result, then the skeptic is determined to find the truth, and it can be both negative and positive.

The presence of a skeptic in a team can be ambiguously assessed. He is admired for the fact that he always defends his opinion, does not join someone else’s, his views remain independent, and is disliked for his behavior, which at times resembles tediousness.

Often skeptics turn out to be pedants. If such a person takes a leadership position, he will expect his employees to accurately complete tasks.

Skepticism turns out to be very appropriate in many professions, but in creative professions it is needed at a minimum, solely as self-criticism.

Children are true skeptics. Try to convince your child of the truthfulness of a certain phenomenon, and you will not succeed. He must see everything with his own eyes or experience it himself. For example, a situation when a child is asked not to touch something hot so as not to get burned, he will not understand this until he touches it and can feel on his own skin how painful it is. This is an example of the basic tenet of skepticism - any claim must be tested empirically.

How to learn critical thinking?

Critical thinking means analyzing information, the ability to distinguish the highest truth from lies, consider all arguments, reason impartially and come out of a situation in your favor. Where to begin?

Recognize problems in your thinking

The starting point for learning is self-reflection. You must learn to observe yourself from the outside, analyze your decisions. You can start by analyzing unpleasant situations that happen regularly: not only describe your thought process, but also identify logic and the role of emotions in decision making.

At the same time, you need to train your memory. Poor memory can distort events beyond recognition and make them seem real. On the other hand, trained memory provides all the necessary material for comparing the information received with your experience.

It is important to consider the barriers to critical thinking. This is a fear of expressing your judgment, a reluctance to think about information. It's a lack of self-confidence, being too quick to criticize your own ideas, or simply being cowardly. It is also a lack of knowledge, a lack of experience.

Apply critical thinking guidance to problem solving

Make it a habit to think about one problem a week. You can use the sample format:

• Problem. Make sure it exists.
• Situation. Describe the problem from different points of view: chronological, logical, emotional.
• Analysis. Think about what really happened, get to the bottom of it.
• Brainstorm. Make a list of possible solutions, no matter how risky or unlikely they may be.
• Solution. Make an informed decision when choosing what is right for you in your specific case.
• Actions. Act strictly according to plan, if only to test critical thinking in action.
• Grade. Evaluate the result, your mistakes, the experience gained.

Develop the qualities necessary for critical thinking

1. Observation is noticing details, collecting information;
2. Skepticism means questioning any information, even from the most reliable sources;
3. Objectivity means limiting the influence of emotions where a cool mind is needed;
4. Curiosity - being interested in the world and people;
5. Accuracy - judge how accurate the conclusion is or whether there are still weak points;
6. Analytical thinking - making decisions based on observation, collection and evaluation of evidence;
7. Empathy - taking into account the human factor;
8. Openness to new solutions - keep an open mind to alternative interpretations;
9. Impartiality - consideration of all evidence, points of view, information;
10. Communication - follow the other person's train of thought.

History of development

Skepticism as a movement first emerged in Ancient Greece. Representatives of this trend were many famous philosophers: Pyrrho, Heraclitus, Sextus Empiricus and others. The ideas of skepticism were largely shared by Socrates.

It was the Greeks who were the first to face the problem of subjective knowledge based on the individual perception of human beings. Mutual refutation of various theories by each other, religious doubts, differences in moral standards in different countries led the Greeks to a vicious circle, where:

• any fact or truth is based on other facts or truths;
• the underlying fact or truth cannot be determined;
• the choice of an arbitrary starting point requires justification for the choice of this starting point.

As a solution to the problem of circular proof, the ancient Hellenes proposed either a rejection of judgments in principle or a softening of the requirements for truth. The first principle prevents the accumulation of knowledge in any form. The second option assumes that even in conditions of subjective perception of reality, the need for action remains, which means that skepticism should rather serve as a criterion for reasonable behavior and contribute to the choice of the most profitable strategy of behavior.

Thus, ancient skepticism suggested observing the laws and rules of the country or city in which a person lives, listening to one’s own body, satisfying physical needs, and engaging in science based on proven facts. This approach formed the basis of ancient medicine and contributed to the accumulation of knowledge proven by experience. Skepticism developed in a similar way in the philosophy of other countries, for example, in ancient India and ancient China, as well as in the Middle East.

During the Middle Ages, skepticism was not a common scientific concept, since the dominant religious beliefs in Europe were based on faith, not doubt. However, already during the Renaissance, it again gained strength within the framework of criticism of theological dogmas. The Renaissance is characterized by doubts about the postulates proposed by the church, based on blind faith that does not require proof. It was then that the authority of faith and tradition was replaced by the authority of reason and rationalism. Thus, skepticism contributed to the development of the scientific approach and stimulated the study of natural and social phenomena.

However, the vicious circle of skepticism manifested itself in the philosophy of the Renaissance, as well as in the philosophy of modern times. The requirements for a reasonable justification of any phenomenon or theory return to the original position: there is no original fact that does not need to be confirmed by other facts. This idea was expressed in their works by such philosophers as Descartes, Voltaire and Diderot. Such contradictions led to the fact that in philosophy they began to question not only the possibility of knowing the truth (agnosticism), but also the very existence of the objective world (solipsism).

The problem of circular proof in philosophy still exists - having gone through all the stages from sophism and cynicism to positivism, neopositivism and irrationalism, it has become a constant component of philosophical knowledge in general.

How to raise a skeptic?

First, you need to answer the question, why raise a skeptic at all? Or, more precisely, why develop skepticism in a person? Of course, it is right to teach children not to trust strangers. But developing cynicism and distrust of everyone and everything is also not an option.

Human socialization is based on interaction with other people. Trust is an important part of this process. Without this, it is impossible to build a normal family, friendship and cooperation. Of course, trusting everyone uncritically is a mistake. But pushing people away with excessive suspicion is also fraught with bad consequences. It is best to raise a child in the spirit of harmony with himself and the world around him, developing in him, in addition to critical thinking skills, the ability to trust people.

Do not think that a skeptic is necessarily a callous and rude person. It all depends on the degree of expression of this quality. Sometimes the ability to doubt helps to avoid fraud and deception. This type of people is less susceptible to external influences and therefore always has their own opinion. On the other hand, excessive doubts interfere with establishing contacts and building relationships, causing everyone to be considered distrustful people. It is better to trust in moderation and not oppress others with your suspicion.

Skepticism

Skepticism (from the Greek skepticos, literally - considering, exploring) arises as a direction in philosophy, obviously in connection with the collapse of some educated people's hopes for the previous claims of philosophy. At the core of skepticism is a position based on doubt about the existence of any reliable criterion of truth.

By focusing on the relativity of human knowledge, skepticism played a positive role in the fight against various forms of dogmatism. Within the framework of skepticism, a number of problems of the dialectics of knowledge were posed

However, skepticism also had other consequences, since unbridled doubt about the possibilities of knowing the world led to pluralism in the understanding of social norms, to unprincipled opportunism, servility, on the one hand, and disregard for human institutions, on the other.

Skepticism is contradictory in nature, it prompted some to an in-depth search for truth, and others to militant ignorance and immorality.

The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 - 270 BC). The philosophy of the skeptics came to us thanks to the works of Sextus Empiricus. His works give us an idea of ​​the ideas of the skeptics Pyrrho, Timon, Carneades, Clitomachus, Aenesidemus.

According to the teachings of Pyrrho, a philosopher is a person who strives for happiness. It, in his opinion, lies only in equanimity, combined with the absence of suffering.

Anyone who wants to achieve happiness must answer three questions:

1. what things are made of;
2. how they should be treated;
3. what benefit we are able to obtain from our attitude towards them.

Pyrrho believed that no answer could be given to the first question, just as it could not be asserted that something definite exists. Moreover, any statement about any subject can with equal right be contrasted with a statement that contradicts it.

From the recognition of the impossibility of unambiguous statements about things, Pyrrho derived the answer to the second question: the philosophical attitude towards things consists in abstaining from any judgments. This is explained by the fact that our sensory perceptions, although reliable, cannot be adequately expressed in judgments. This answer also predetermines the answer to the third question: the benefit and benefit arising from abstaining from all kinds of judgments consists of equanimity or serenity. This state, called ataraxia, based on the renunciation of knowledge, is considered by skeptics as the highest level of bliss.

The efforts of the skeptics Pyrrho, Aenesidemus and Agrippina, aimed at shackling human curiosity with doubt and slowing down the movement along the path of progressive development of knowledge, were in vain. The future, which seemed to skeptics as a terrible punishment for believing in the omnipotence of knowledge, nevertheless came and none of their warnings could stop it.

Philosophy

Pathological condition

Excessive skepticism can lead to pathological conditions. Such a person often suffers from constant doubts and searching for arguments. Over time, the conflict with the immediate environment may escalate. Strongly expressed skepticism leads to isolation, excessive suspicion, complaints, and a schizoid personality is formed.

A deep expression of skepticism can completely consume a person. All reasons to believe in anything disappear, and a person does not even admit the possibility of the existence of any truth. Morality, law and ethical standards no longer serve their role; they cease to be a deterrent.

In real life, a person’s complete capitulation to skepticism is a rare mental phenomenon. As a rule, people are characterized by healthy skepticism towards unverified information.

Excessive skepticism can be dangerous for what, like many other extremes of human personality

Notes

1. ↑
2. ↑
3. Skepticism
   - article from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
4. Sagan K.
   Contact. Simon and Schuster, 1985; Republished August 1997 by Doubleday Books, ISBN 1-56865-424-3, 352 pp.
5. Sagan K., Druyan E.
   Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium. Ballantine Books, 1998, ISBN 0-345-37918-7, 320 pp.
6. Kurtz, P.
   The New Skepticism: Inquiry and Reliable Knowledge. — Prometheus Books. — 371 p. — ISBN 978-0-87975-766-3.
7. For example, such as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and GWUP
8. Langmuir I.
   Pathological science. Physics Today 42 (Oct. 1989): 36-48. / transcribed and ed., Robert N. Hall.
9. Storms, Edmund.

   The science of low energy nuclear reaction: a comprehensive compilation of evidence and explanations about cold fusion. - World Scientific, 2007. - P. 49-50. — ISBN 9789812706201.

The dangers of skepticism and cynicism

Therefore, it’s time to sum up some results and also say why it is dangerous to be a skeptic and a cynic.

From the above it is clear that skepticism and cynicism do not do anything special; they simply call for approaching everything from the point of view of reason, and not faith. Therefore, if someone asks us, a skeptic is a person of what beliefs, we can answer that he is a person who does not take anyone’s word for it and tests everything with the power of his intellect.

However, there is a certain subtlety to this worldview. It's that you can't put a building on anything. In other words, no matter how cynical and skeptical a person may be, he still has some secret faith that feeds his courageous mind. When it is not there, it will soon appear, and then the current skeptic will become a believer. We can say: what if the conviction in the existence of something higher does not come to a person? Then the believer in cynicism will fall into the clutches of nihilism. The latter is also not very good; let us at least remember the fate of Bazarov, and everything will immediately become clear to us.

Philosophical skepticism

This line of thought began to develop in Ancient Greece during the Hellenistic period. That was the era when the classical structure of Hellas, which consisted of independent city-polises, began to collapse. This was largely facilitated by the aggressive campaigns of Alexander the Great. The young king created an empire and destroyed the polis system of Greece. In such conditions, the previous philosophy, which cultivated the ideas of a harmonious structure of the world and the possibility of knowing it, no longer met the requirements of the time.

Therefore, during the Hellenistic period, many new philosophical schools arose, which were united by the idea of ​​a disharmonious world order and the loneliness of man in a hostile environment. Among the new teachings was skepticism, the founder of which is considered to be the philosopher Pyrrho from the city of Elis (approximately 360 - 275 BC). He approached the study of the world from the point of view of subjectivity and believed that nothing can be considered certain. All things are what people think they are. And since there are many people, and everyone has their own opinion, it is impossible to determine unambiguously what a thing really is.

Subsequently, the teaching of skepticism regained popularity among the thinkers of the Renaissance. A prominent representative of this trend in the 16th century was the French philosopher Michel Montaigne. Based on the ideas of ancient skepticism, he deepened this teaching and gave it a social resonance. The principle of doubt became the basis of the idea of ​​a tolerant attitude towards different points of view. People have the right to express their own opinion, whatever it may be, Montaigne believed, persecution for ideas is wrong.

Doubt was later used as a methodological principle in his theory of knowledge by Rene Descartes, one of the most outstanding thinkers of the modern era. He believed that you can doubt everything except one fact: I, as a thinking subject, exist. That is, the fact of his thinking becomes confirmation of the existence of the subject. Cogito ergo sum.