History of the development of psychology
The term "psychology" in Greek means "the science of the soul." This science originates in the depths of philosophical thought. Even the philosophers of Ancient Greece asked questions about the soul.
The origin of psychology as a science is considered ancient.
Early ancient authors often devoted their works to problems of human nature, his soul and mind. To date, from a number of views of ancient authors, only the classification of temperament of Hippocrates has been preserved, although many of Plato’s ideas influenced the development of the philosophical foundations of views on the psyche, in particular, the view of man as a being torn apart by internal conflicting motives, was reflected in psychoanalytic ideas about the structure personality.
The next stage in the development of psychology was the Middle Ages.
Medieval writings on psychology in Europe were mainly devoted to questions of faith and reason, primarily by Christian philosophers, starting with Thomas Aquinas.
The modern period began in the 16th century. It was during this time that the famous Roman philosopher Rudolf Goclenius first used the term "psychology" in 1590 to refer to the science of the soul. His modern Otto Kasmann is considered the first to use the term "psychology" in the modern scientific sense.
Representatives of the new era, such as R. Descartes and F. Bacon, believed that the body and soul have a different nature - this was a new look at the problem of psychology. “The soul and body live and act according to different laws and have different natures” R. Descartes.
The 19th century was the century of the gradual emergence of psychology as a scientific discipline, separating the relevant areas from philosophy, medicine and the exact sciences.
Ernst Weber studied the dependence of the intensity of sensations on the intensity of the stimuli that cause them.
Hermann Helmholtz studied the nervous system as the basis of the psyche and formulated ideas about “automatic conclusions” that underlie spatial perception.
However, the most important name in the history of the emergence of psychology as a science is Wilhelm Wundt. A student and collaborator of Helmholtz, Wundt opened the world's first psychological laboratory in 1879, where his introspection studies of the phenomena of consciousness were carried out. This year is considered the year of birth of psychology as a science.
The next turning point in psychology was the twentieth century.
The early twentieth century was characterized by rapid growth in several directions. One of these was psychoanalysis, a school of psychotherapy originally based on the work of Sigmund Freud, in which the individual was described as a system of several independent personality structures struggling with each other - ego (id), id (ego), superego (superego). In this conflict, the “I” represents the biological needs of a person, and the “superego” represents the needs of society and culture. The development of this school had a strong influence not only on practice, but also on science. This forced scientists to pay attention to phenomena that lie beyond consciousness, to the unconscious determinants of mental activity. The ideas of the first psychoanalytic school of Sigmund Freud were also further developed by Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung.
In the United States, behaviorism, the school of psychology founded by James Watson on the work of Ivan Pavlov and E. Thorndick on learning, is actively moving forward. Behaviorists followed the positivist claim that science should eliminate all phenomena other than those that are directly observable. People were viewed as a “black box” into which stimuli came in and responses to those stimuli came out.
In Germany, Gestalt psychology is developing (M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka and W. Köhler), which is a further development on the path of studying the phenomena of consciousness. Unlike their predecessors, Gestalts did not attempt to isolate the "building blocks" that make up consciousness; on the contrary, they believed that “the whole is always greater than the sum of its parts” - this is their fundamental law. Within the framework of this school, many phenomena of perception and thinking were discovered.
The First World War stimulated the development of applied aspects of psychology, especially psychodiagnostics, as the army needed a means of assessing the abilities of soldiers. Intelligence tests were developed (A. Binet, R. Erkes).
In the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis come to power in Germany, and many psychologists (many of them Jews) are forced to emigrate to the United States. Gestalt psychology practically ceased to exist, but K. Lewin and his Gestalt followers became important figures in American social psychology. However, thinkers such as Carl Gustav Jung and Martin Heidegger remained active in Nazi Germany. Jung continues to develop his doctrine of the collective unconscious; in 1934 he published one of his fundamental works, “Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious.”
J. Piaget publishes the results of analytical studies that reveal similar types of errors in children of the same age, which are practically absent in older children. Psychological and psychotherapeutic practice is actively developing. Psychoanalysis is divided into many branches and on its basis alternative forms of psychotherapy (Gestalt therapy, etc.) are formed.
L. S. Vygotsky formulated the basic principles of cultural-historical psychology based on Marxism. Within the framework of this direction, the need to study personality directly in the process of development under the influence of history and culture was postulated. Based on this direction, the theory of activity was subsequently built.
The 1936 decree “On pedological perversions in the Narkompros system,” which abolished soil science, actually froze the development of psychological science in the USSR for several decades.
The Second World War causes a new surge in the activity of psychologists in the field of applied psychology. Particular attention is paid to social psychology and ergonomics.
The 1950s and 1960s were an era of prosperity and active development of psychological science in various directions. In modern textbooks, most of the material is devoted to experiments and research of this period.
The theory of behaviorism could not provide answers to many questions that developing industry and military technology posed to science. The development of the most effective forms of presenting information on control panels of complex devices and other tasks required active study of not only simple reactions to stimuli, but also the complex mechanisms underlying perception. As a result of this demand, a field began to develop that was later called “cognitive psychology”: D. Broadbent conducted his research into the mechanisms of weakening of attention, and J. Miller published his famous article on the “magic number seven plus or minus two.”
Behavior modification methods are being actively developed based on behavioral theory. Wolpe develops a method of systematic desensitization, which turns out to be very effective in treating various types of phobias. Against this background, humanistic psychology and psychotherapy appear as an attempt to overcome the reduction of man to an automaton or animal (the theories of behaviorism and psychoanalysis). Humanistic psychologists propose to consider a person as a being of a higher level, endowed with free will and the desire for self-realization.
In the late 60s, along with the growing popularity of modern culture, psychology was strongly influenced by mysticism; in the wake of the success of research into psychedelic substances and new areas of consciousness, transpersonality arises, and a number of schools and training in personal growth are developing, some of which over time in religious cults: (Scientology, Lifespring). In 1966, the psychology departments of Moscow State University and Leningrad State University, as well as the department of psychiatry and medical psychology, were opened at RUDN University, which marked the end of 30 years of persecution of psychologists. This was largely due to the emerging demand for psychologists in industry and the army. Engineering psychology is actively developing in the USSR. However, for objective reasons, national psychology must remain extremely idealized in accordance with Marxist-Leninist constructs, which will give its further development some features. Marxist-Leninist theories (the theory of reflection) have somehow retained their influence on the training program for psychologists in some Russian universities.
From 1970 to 1980 There has been a rapid growth of cognitive psychology, which is moving along the path of gradually refuting its original postulates about the nature of the human psyche as an information processing system with limited capabilities. During this period, psychology established active connections with linguistics, which became inevitable after the “revolution”; psycholinguistics is being formed.
Other areas of psychology have seen steady growth and accumulation of knowledge; at the same time, a feeling of “eternal crisis” is once again emerging in psychological thought, since none of the modern trends gives hope for the imminent emergence of a truly complete and explanatory theory of human behavior.
In general, it can be stated that in the period from the late 1960s to the late 1980s, the formation of the theoretical and methodological foundations of psychological science was completed in the USSR, and psychology itself consolidated its position in the system of sciences.
Only in the second half of the 80s did a radical turn take place, which lifted the ideological “taboo” that for so many years had blocked the inclusion of domestic psychology in the general flow of world psychological science.
The main trend characterizing the end of the 20th century in Russian psychology in this regard is the abandonment of its opposition to foreign psychological science. The rejection of the axiomatic statement that “Soviet, Marxist psychology” is the only correct and promising direction for the development of science led to a change in the situation in the international contacts of Russian psychologists. If in the recent past almost all foreign psychology was branded as “bourgeois science”, and sometimes as a “servant of imperialism”, now this counter-version of the “Soviet bourgeoisie” is completely useless.
Currently, the system of psychological sciences is actively developing, every 4-5 years a new direction appears
What books will help a beginner
What books should I start with to get to know myself and the science of psychology? Initially, let’s say that this can be either non-educational literature or textbooks or monographs on the topic under consideration.
- L. Burbo “5 injuries that prevent you from being yourself.” This book will tell you in an easy and understandable way about the five main personal traumas. He will also tell you what methods and methods can be used to work them out;
- D. Kehoe “The subconscious can do anything.” Reveals such elements as consciousness and subconsciousness, as well as how they work and interact with each other;
- K. Jung “Memories, Reflections, Dreams.” The book is quite popular in Jung's writings. It reveals deep psychology. In general, all of Jung's works are required reading, as they reveal the basis and basis of psychology;
- D. Goleman “Emotional Intelligence.” Reveals the characteristics of our emotions and the emotional functioning of the brain.
If you want to go deeper into more theoretical knowledge, any general psychology textbook will do. It can be purchased, downloaded or borrowed from the library. The choice is yours.
Structure
The structure of psychology, or in other words, the structure of psychology, the type of activity, what science consists of and everything else that I will point out in this chapter.
The emergence of psychology as a science consisted of several stages:
At the first stage of its emergence, psychology existed as a science of the soul. This definition was given more than 2000 years ago. They tried to explain all phenomena in human life by the presence of the soul. The soul itself was compared to the human body, which became the basis of anthropomorphism. But since the soul is unprecedented and invisible, we can only believe in its existence. And everything that is built on faith is not science, but a kind of religion.
With the development of natural sciences, psychology as a doctrine of the soul does not fit into the teachings of scientists. For everything that the psychology of the soul claims cannot be proven, because it is impossible to observe objectively and analyze practically. And all that's left is to believe. A doctrine based only on faith is somehow a form of religious attitude towards the world.
The psychology of the soul was replaced by the so-called psychology of consciousness, that is, the second stage in the development of psychological science. The psychology of consciousness is already based on observation; in addition, it even becomes possible to experiment, thanks to which it has accumulated significant material about the properties and patterns of the inner spiritual life of a person. At the end of the 19th century, many scientists came to the conclusion that psychology, in order to become a science, must, as a rule, throw out the question of consciousness from its object, leaving only what can be directly seen and recorded. Thus, the third stage in the development of psychology arises, psychology as the science of behavior. This stage is called behaviorism.
The fourth stage in the development of psychological science, when it was possible to prove that there is no contradiction or identity between the mental and the material, but there is unity. Psyche is a function, i.e. the mode of action corresponding to the form of highly organized matter of the nervous system and its highest manifestation of the brain. Matter is the vehicle of the psycho. Psychology, therefore, is the science of the laws of the emergence, development and manifestation of the psyche in general and human consciousness in particular.
On the path to the development of psychology as a science, there were various schools, directions and concepts. They were of different natures and often contradicted each other. Thus, in Soviet psychological science, based on the communist idea, the goal was to develop a monistic approach to the study and explanation of psychological phenomena. However, despite ideological pressure, it was not possible to develop a unified approach to the study of the psyche. In specific studies of the Soviet period, sometimes directly, and in most cases, the definitions of psychologists of different directions and schools were hidden, which became evidence of the creative use of the achievements of world psychological science.
Psychology develops its own approaches to the study of science:
Introduction to psychology includes a number of areas. What they all have in common is that they use introspection as a method of studying the psyche, that is, a person’s observation of the contents and actions of his own consciousness. Finally, almost all modern psychologists believe that consciousness is a set of phenomena, some of which can be studied through introspection, i.e. through introspection.
Associate psychology has its origins in ancient philosophy. Within this direction, mental phenomena were explained mainly by the concept of association. This direction in psychology has existed for quite a long time. Later studies led to the refusal to absolutize this direction.
Analytical psychology was founded by Swiss psychologist C. G. Jung (1875-1961). He viewed the process of mental development of the individual as the assimilation by consciousness of the contents of the personal and collective unconscious. Cognitive psychology (Latin knowledge, cognition) is one of the modern branches of psychology. Research by representatives of cognitive psychology related to the analysis of various aspects of human mental activity. Among the principles of cognitive psychology is the attitude towards a person as an active, actively perceiving being, who in his mental activity is guided by certain plans, rules and strategies. Representatives of cognitive psychology are distinguished by their research aimed at moving from understanding a complex phenomenon to understanding a simple one. Information theory and research in the field of artificial intelligence had a significant influence on the development of the conceptual apparatus of cognitive psychology.
Neobehavior is a movement in American psychology that emerged in the 1930s. She accepted the basic assertion of behaviorism, according to which the object of psychology is the objective observation of the body's response to environmental stimuli (SR schema). However, representatives of neo-behavior introduced an “intermediate variable” into the general scheme as a link between stimulus and response (S - O - R). They believe that the “intervening variable” (O) determines the cognitive and motivational components of behavior. Proponents of this direction founded the “law of action” (“law of goods”) and considered the behavior of an individual as a series of influences (reactions) to certain benefits (incentives) that the individual receives. They believe that the midpoint (O) cannot be analyzed by objective methods. Gestalt psychology is one of the trends in psychology of the 20-30s of the 20th century, created by W. Wertheimer (1880-1943), W. Keller (1887-1967), K. Koffka (1886-1941) and other German psychologists. They assumed the primacy of the whole over the parts and the form over the material (Gestaltism. Image, form and configuration). Unlike associative psychology, Gestalts consider holistic images, rather than sensations, as the original and fundamental element of the psyche. Accordingly, these images are created by the individual's desire to form simple, balanced, symmetrical and coherent figures, which are characterized by constancy and persistence. From a perceptual perspective, Gestalt researchers have adopted the concept of "gestalt" and the idea of cultural entities as wholesalers whose elements are combined into a single structure.
Humanistic psychology emerged in the early 1950s. It is not homogeneous, but all its proponents are of the opinion that psychology should not be modeled on the basis of the natural sciences: man should be studied as an active object of study. Representatives of this direction - A. Maslow (1908-1970), K. Rogers (1902-1982) and others - focused on the following topics: Personality, development, activity, creativity, autonomy, self-realization, self-improvement, freedom of choice, responsibility, human aspiration to higher values, etc.
FAQ
In this section, we will try to answer the most common questions that arise among people who have begun to take an active interest in the peculiarities of the human psyche.
How are philosophy and psychology related?
As already mentioned, psychology and philosophy are interrelated sciences. Since many ideas and patterns are blackened by philosophy. Moreover, learned philosophers have made just as significant contributions to the development of psychology as learned psychologists.
These two sciences have the same methods and similar subjects. Psychology is an opportunity to answer the fundamental philosophical questions “What is the soul?”, “What is the meaning of life”, “How to live correctly”, “What is love” and others like that.
What can you become after receiving professional education as a psychologist?
This area of knowledge is very universal. It can be used everywhere, including for personal purposes.
When you receive education as a psychologist, or as a psychiatrist and psychotherapist, you can work in your specialty. In addition to the monetary component, you also have the goal of helping people who need it.
With a psychological education, you can become a consultant, coach, or teacher. Personal consultants in companies are now in great demand, so it is not necessary to engage in psychological practice.
But even in a situation where you do not want to connect your life with psychology in any way, getting an education has significant benefits. You can recognize an abuser in the early stages, see the tyrant behind the mask of virtue. Moreover, you can more correctly choose the necessary way out of conflict and communication. This knowledge will allow you to build a healthy and ecological relationship with a loving person.
Can psychologists have psychological and mental problems?
A psychologist and a person who studies psychology is a person like everyone else. Therefore, it is normal if at some point he has psychological problems (trauma, stress, depression). The only difference is that the psychologist can notice the symptoms of some diseases and disorders in himself. But his illnesses also need to be treated.
Is knowledge of psychology always enough for self-medication?
Of course not. If we are talking about easy problems - worries, obsessive thoughts, then Nana's psychology will be enough. However, there are also mental illnesses, as well as serious injuries. Their diagnosis and treatment is only possible from the outside. Therefore, it is necessary to contact a specialist, even if you yourself have a professional education in this industry.
There are many questions regarding the study of psychology
Branches of psychology
Modern psychology is not only pluralistic, but also multidisciplinary. The complex of psychological disciplines can be divided into general psychology, which studies the universal patterns of psychological functioning, and special branches of psychology. At the same time, there are main special branches of psychology that focus on a certain aspect of the psyche: Neuropsychology, differential psychology, social psychology, etc. And interdisciplinary specialties unfold on the borders of psychological knowledge and areas of other sciences, such as psychophysiology, psycholinguistics, psychogenetics. General psychology includes four main areas: general theory (questions about the origin and functions of the mental), psychology of cognitive processes (psychology of sensations and perception, psychology of memory, psychology of thought and language, psychology of imagination), psychology of regulatory processes (psychology of emotions and motivation , psychology of attention, psychology of will) and personality psychology. Basic specialties of psychology and interdisciplinary specialties of psychology use the theoretical apparatus of general psychology in their designs and rely on the basic assumptions and laws of mental activity formulated in it. Knowledge of the main special and interdisciplinary special branches, collected by general psychology and refracted through more specific problems, finds its practical expression in the applied branches of psychology. The latter, in turn, enriches general psychology with new problems and results and stimulates the growth of basic knowledge. Applied branches of psychology are positioned in connection with specific areas of activity of a trainee psychologist (recruitment, consultations, image modeling, advertising, creating comfortable conditions at work, psychological correction of family relationships, psychological rehabilitation of victims of natural disasters, etc.). Thus, in his practice, the psychotherapist uses general knowledge about cognitive processes (the level of general psychology), information from the pathopsychology of abnormal behavior (the level of the main specialty of psychology) and from psychophysiology (the level of the interdisciplinary specialty of psychology). The group of applied branches of psychology reflects the areas of subject activity of people in which the importance of the psychological factor is recognized. Every year, society’s need for qualified applied psychologists is growing, and specific areas of application of theoretical knowledge are becoming more diverse. A separate area of professional activity of psychologists is the popularization of psychological knowledge and improvement of the psychological culture of the population.
Above we outlined the main issues considered within the framework of general psychology. Now let's outline the range of problems faced by major psychology majors. The criterion for their selection is the emphasis on one aspect of the integral function and development of the psyche.
Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that studies the brain mechanisms of higher mental functions using the material of local brain lesions.
Pathopsychology is a branch of psychology that studies changes in mental activity in pathological conditions associated with mental or somatic diseases.
Psychology of aging is a branch of psychology that studies the characteristics of mental function in representatives of various age groups.
Differential psychology is a branch of psychology that studies individual differences in mental activity.
Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of socially determined human behavior and activity.
Psychosemantics is a branch of psychology that studies the formation, functioning and structure of individual systems of semantic meanings.
Genetic psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with the laws of mental development in ontogenesis.
Animal psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with the evolution and peculiarities of the functioning of the psyche in animals.
Ethnopsychology is a branch of psychology that studies the characteristics of the functioning of the psyche in representatives of different ethnic groups. Let us now turn to the area of interest of interdisciplinary specialties in psychology.
Psychopharmacology is a branch of psychology that arose at the intersection of pharmacology and psychology and is associated with the action of pharmacological agents, among which psychotropic drugs occupy a special place.
Psycholinguistics is a discipline that studies the conditioning of linguistic processes by the structure of language and arose at the intersection of psychology and linguistics. Psychology is a scientific discipline
Psychophysiology is an interdisciplinary field of research at the intersection of psychology and neurophysiology, the purpose of which is to study the psyche in unity with its neurophysiological substrate.
Psychogenetics is a discipline of psychology associated with genetics with the aim of revealing the role of heredity (genotype) in the formation of individual psychological characteristics. Psychosomatics is a branch of psychology and medicine that deals with the influence of psychological factors on the occurrence and course of various diseases.
Historical psychology is a branch of psychology whose goal is to reconstruct the psyche of people who lived in earlier eras; it arises at the intersection of psychology, history and cultural studies. In conclusion, we list some applied branches of psychology.
Sports psychology is a discipline of psychology that examines the patterns of human psychological functioning in conditions of sports activity.
Advertising psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the phenomena and patterns of the impact of advertising on the mentality and behavior of consumers. Space psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the phenomena and patterns of human mental life in the conditions of preparation and conduct of space flights.
Legal psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the phenomena and patterns of people’s psychological life related to the application of legal norms and participation in legal activities.
Medical psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the phenomena and characteristics of people’s mental life associated with the use of medical manipulations and stay in medical institutions.
Aviation psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the phenomena and patterns of people’s psychological life associated with professional activities in the field of aviation.
Educational psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of assimilation of an individual’s social experience in the context of educational activities.
Environmental psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the most effective ways to improve the psychological conditions of human life in populated areas.
