How did psychology emerge as a science? History of psychology. Great psychologists

Psychology as a science originated in Ancient Greece and is still a relevant field. Based on the treatises and works of scientists, mechanisms, models and systems have been developed to study the behavior, perception, awareness and adaptability of a person in society. Let's learn a brief history of psychology, and also get acquainted with famous figures who made a huge contribution to the development of this humanitarian science.

A Brief History of Psychology

Where did it all start? How did psychology emerge as a science? In fact, this branch is closely connected with philosophy, history, and sociology. Today, psychology actively interacts with biology and neuropsychology, despite the fact that initially scientists in this field tried to find evidence of the existence of the soul in the human body. The name itself comes from two derivatives: logos (“teaching”) and psycho (“soul”). It was only after the 18th century that scientists made a subtle connection between the very definition of science and human character. And so a new concept of psychology appeared - researchers began to build psychoanalysis, study the behavior of each person, identify categories and pathologies that affect interests, adaptability, mood and life choices.

Many great psychologists, such as S. Rubinstein and R. Goklenius, noted that this science is important in human knowledge. From time immemorial, researchers have been studying the connection between reason and religion, faith and spirituality, consciousness and behavior.

The place of psychology in the system of sciences[edit | edit wiki text]

The position of psychology is associated with two diverse traditions. The first represents its desire to become a natural science discipline, the second its desire to take the place of everyday psychology. As V.V. Petukhov and V.V. Stolin point out, both goals are fundamentally unattainable. In comparison with everyday psychology, scientific psychology is a special discipline with its own conceptual and methodological apparatus for the study of mental life. At the same time, psychology has features associated with the fact that the object of its study is capable of internal reflection of its states. Scientific and everyday psychology retain fundamental differences, but at the same time they are interconnected with each other[3].

Psychology has connections with both the natural and human sciences. The connection between psychology and the natural sciences is based on the biological nature of man. However, the peculiarity of man is that he is a social being, whose mental phenomena are largely socially determined. For this reason, psychology is usually classified as a humanities science[4]. A distinctive feature of psychology is the coincidence of the object and subject of cognition, that is, the need to use reflection as a research tool.

The relationship between psychology and modern sciences[edit | edit wiki text]

Philosophy[edit | edit wiki text]

Questions of psychology have long been considered within the framework of philosophy. Only in the middle of the 19th century did psychology become an independent science. But having separated from philosophy, it continues to maintain a close connection with it. Currently, there are scientific problems that are studied by both psychology and philosophy. Such problems include the concepts of personal meaning, life goals, worldview, political views, moral values ​​and more. Psychology uses experimental methods to test hypotheses. However, there are questions that cannot be solved experimentally. In such cases, psychologists can turn to philosophy. Philosophical and psychological problems include problems of the essence and origin of human consciousness, the nature of the highest forms of human thinking, the influence of society on the individual and the individual on society[5].

A.G. Maklakov points out that, although for a long time philosophy was divided into materialistic and idealistic, now there has been a convergence of these trends in philosophy, and we can talk about the equal importance for psychology of both directions. Materialistic philosophy is fundamental when considering problems of activity and the origin of higher mental functions. Idealist philosophy, according to Maklakov, poses such problems as responsibility, conscience, the meaning of life, spirituality. Maklakov notes that the use of both directions (materialistic and idealistic) in psychology “most fully reflects the dual essence of man, his biosocial nature”[5].

According to A.G. Maklakov, problems of epistemology are among the problems that can be solved only through the cooperation of psychologists and philosophers[5]. Some theories of psychology are of a psychological and philosophical nature, such as, for example, the theoretical works of neo-Freudians. For example, the works of Erich Fromm are used in psychology, sociology and philosophy.

Sociology[edit | edit wiki text]

Psychology is closely related to the social sciences. It has a lot in common with sociology. Sociology borrows from social psychology methods for studying personality and human relationships. Psychology widely uses methods of collecting scientific information such as surveys and questionnaires, which are traditionally considered sociological. There are various concepts that psychology and sociology adopt from each other. Psychologists and sociologists solve many problems, such as national psychology, political psychology, problems of socialization and social attitudes [6].

History[edit | edit wiki text]

Historical sciences are also important for psychology. An example of the synthesis of history and psychology is the theory of cultural and historical development of higher mental forms by L. S. Vygotsky. The use of the historical method in psychology is to study the phylo- and ontogenetic development of mental phenomena from elementary to complex forms. The convergence of history and psychology is based on the concept that modern man is a product of human development[7]. Evolutionary psychology also studies questions of the historical development of psychological phenomena.

Biological sciences[edit | edit wiki text]

Psychology is closely related to the biological sciences, including medicine. The use of the achievements of these sciences in psychology is based on the fact that most mental phenomena and mental processes are physiologically determined. There are known facts about the mutual influence of the mental and somatic on each other. The mental state influences the physiological state. Mental characteristics can contribute to the development of certain diseases (for example, psychosomatic ones). The feedback is that many diseases affect the mental state[8].

Psychology has a particularly close connection with neurology and psychiatry. A significant number of scientists who made significant contributions to psychology in their main profession were neurologists and psychiatrists. It was the study of diseases of the nervous system and mental disorders that allowed them to identify significant features of the structure and functioning of the psyche and its connections with the structure and functioning of the nervous system, which in the normal state remain hidden or difficult to detect. To study related issues with psychiatry, psychology has identified such branches as pathopsychology, clinical psychology, psychosomatics, psychology of abnormal development; with neurobiology, anatomy and physiology of the central nervous system, branches - neuropsychology, psychophysiology. Significant progress in the development of genetics has led to the creation of psychogenetics, in which, based on sequencing of the human genome, research is carried out to identify the influence of genetic effects on the functioning of the psyche.

Neuropsychology[edit | edit wiki text]

A true revolution in psychology was caused by the emergence of non-invasive (non-destructive) research techniques, both passive (functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI) and active (transcranial magnetic stimulation). With the help of these techniques, psychologists for the first time were able to conduct reproducible studies of previously difficult to objectively study phenomena such as consciousness, dreams, free will, etc.

Other sciences[edit | edit wiki text]

Psychology actively interacts with a large number of other sciences and branches of scientific knowledge. This interaction is manifested, first of all, in the creation of branches of psychology, which are related, applied branches of scientific knowledge that study the patterns of objective reality from the perspective of the subject of psychology. For example, the connection between psychology and anthropology is established thanks to the existence of such a fundamental branch of psychology as personality psychology; with pedagogy - educational psychology; with defectology - in the existence of special psychology; linguistics, interacting with psychology, gives birth to psycholinguistics; The connection with jurisprudence is clearly manifested in such branches of psychology as forensic psychology, victim psychology, criminal psychology, pathopsychology, crime investigation psychology [ source not specified 397 days

].

Discussions regarding the scientific status of psychology[edit | edit wiki text]

The scientific status of psychology has been the subject of extensive debate for a long time. As Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Deputy Director of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. V. Yurevich noted in 2005, psychology occupies an intermediate position between science and parascience[9].

Most experts agree that psychology today is a collection of various facts, theories, assumptions, methodologies and goals. There is no consensus among psychologists either as to how scientific modern psychology is, or as to whether it can be scientific in principle. Even among those who believe that it is possible to bring psychology to scientific standards, there is no agreement as to what type of science it should be classified as. American psychologist B. R. Hegenhan pointed out in 2009 that scientists give a range of answers to the question of whether psychology is a science, and the content of these answers depends on who gives them and what aspect of psychology is implied:

· no, it represents a pre-paradigm discipline;

· no, its subject is too subjective to lend itself to scientific research;

· no, but it can and should become a science;

· yes and no: it is partly science, and partly not;

· yes, psychology is a scientific discipline that uses scientific methodology.

The scientific status of psychology is the subject of controversy in the contemporary debate between modernism and postmodernism[10].

Many psychological theories do not meet Popper's criterion because they cannot be refuted due to vague formulations, and also because it is impossible to make scientific predictions based on them. Although such theories lack scientific rigor, they are often useful. Examples include the theories of Sigmund Freud and Alfred Adler. Popper himself believed that proof of the unscientific and metaphysical nature of a theory does not necessarily make such a theory useless and meaningless[11].

T.V. Kornilova and S.D. Smirnov noted that due to the parallel existence of many paradigms in psychology and the constant emergence of new mini-paradigms, the effect of a permanent crisis and permanent revolution is created in this science. This fact is used by a number of researchers as the basis for claims that psychology is not a developed science or is not a science at all. In psychology, to date there has not been any complete and clear demarcation between scientific, pseudo-scientific and pseudoscientific knowledge. Unlike astronomy and chemistry, which completely dissociated themselves from astrology and alchemy, psychology shows much greater tolerance to parapsychology and often assimilates the experience of everyday psychology[12].

What it is

Psychology as an independent science studies mental processes, human interaction with the outside world and behavior in it. The main object in the teaching is the psyche, which translated from ancient Greek means “spiritual”. In other words, the psyche is the realized actions of a person, which are based on primary knowledge about reality.

Brief theses defining psychology:

• This is a way of knowing yourself, your inner and, of course, the world around you.
• This is a “spiritual” science, because it forces us to constantly develop, asking eternal questions: who am I, why am I in this world. That is why there is a subtle connection between psychology and sciences such as philosophy and sociology.
• This is a science that studies the interaction of the external world with the psyche and its influence on others. Thanks to numerous studies, a new branch was created - psychiatry, where scientists began to identify pathologies and psychological disorders, as well as stop them, treat them, or completely destroy them.
• This is the beginning of the spiritual path, where great psychologists, together with philosophers, sought to study the connection between the spiritual and material world. Despite the fact that today the awareness of spiritual unity is just a myth that came from the depths of time, psychology reflects a certain meaning of existence - ordered, cultivated, organized thousands of years later.

Basic psychological concepts.

The first systematic course in psychology was created by the German psychiatrist Emil Kalperin in 1883. Since then, many schools and concepts have emerged within psychological science that try to explain certain mental phenomena.

Psychoanalysis or Freudianism.

The most popular concept known outside of psychological science. Named after its founder, Sigmund Freud, who was the first to divide three levels of mental life: consciousness (Ego or I), preconscious (super-I), unconscious (It or libido). Gradually, psychoanalysis was enriched with new ideas, theories, and psychoanalytic concepts.

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Logotherapy.

The idea of ​​finding the meaning of life is based on the idea of ​​the Austrian psychiatrist Viktor Frankl. In this regard, the category of the meaning of life is contrasted with the eternal search for pleasure, which was promoted by Freud.

Gestalt psychology.

It arose thanks to the efforts of German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka as an attempt to build a psychological theory by analogy with physics. The term “Gestalt” itself denotes holistic formations of consciousness, and the main explanatory principle of Gestalt psychology is the principle of integrity.

Humanistic psychology.

The direction was formed within the framework of the humanistic approach. Its most prominent representatives are A. Maslow and K. Rogers. According to humanistic theory, the main goal of human existence is self-actualization, self-realization, and continuous self-development. Spiritual (Christian) psychology can be considered a branch of the humanistic concept.

Cognitivism.

The word “cognitive” is translated from Latin as “to know.” The main representatives of the movement are George Kelly and Aron Beck, who said: “human feelings and actions are determined by thinking.” Proponents of the concept defend the opinion that a person is not a machine that blindly reacts to changes in the external world, but a thinking person, capable of analyzing information, his actions and behavior, making comparisons, and solving problems.

Behaviorism.

The founder of behaviorism (translated as “behavior”) is the American psychologist John Watson, who developed the idea of ​​​​the relationship between behavior, stimulus and transmitting reaction. The motto of behaviorism is “psychology is the science of behavior,” and consciousness is not studied here because it does not have behavioral indicators.

Transpersonal (transpersonal).

Translated, it means “the soul on the other side of the mask.” Explores human spirituality, transpersonal experiences in all forms and manifestations, as well as parapsychological phenomena, karmic dynamics, unresolved psychotraumas of birth. Transpersonal techniques focus on unusual states of consciousness - intuition, meditative trance, hypnosis, mediumship. The founder of the direction and inventor of the main technique for “immersion into oneself” (holotropic breathing) is S. Grof.

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Interactive.

The name of the direction is translated as “interaction” - “social interaction”. The purpose of the direction is to study the laws of interaction: harmonious, positive, disharmonious, conflict. The founder of the interactive concept is George Mead, and its popularizer is Eric Berne.

What does psychology study?

Let's answer the main question - what does the science of psychology study? First of all, all mental processes and their components. Researchers have found that these processes can be divided into three types: will, feelings, cognition. These include human thinking, memory, emotions, goals, and decision making. This gives rise to the second phenomenon that science studies—mental states. What psychology studies:

• Processes. Attention, speech, sensitivity, affect and stress, feelings and motives, representation and curiosity.
• States. Fatigue and emotional outbursts, satisfaction and apathy, depression and happiness.
• Properties. Abilities, unique character traits, types of temperament.
• Education. Habits, skills, areas of knowledge, abilities, adaptability, personal traits.

Let's now begin to formulate an answer to the main question - how did psychology emerge as a science? Initially, researchers paid attention to simple mental phenomena, which they began to observe. It was noted that any mental process can last just a few seconds or more, sometimes reaching 30-60 minutes. This aroused genuine interest, and subsequently all mental activity of people was classified as complex brain processes.

Today science studies each individual individually, identifying new mental phenomena, although previously everything was divided into several types. Feelings of depression, causes of irritation, absent-mindedness, mood swings, character and temperament formation, self-development and evolution are only a small part of what influenced the development of psychology as a science.

Types of psychology.

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Traditionally, all types of psychology are divided into two large groups:

• Academic is science for science's sake. It studies mental manifestations characteristic of people (or animals) in general, and derives generalized dependencies between events or phenomena in all spheres of mental life. Its goal is to develop a theory, identify patterns in the individual and group psyche of people, and study individual psychological phenomena. This is a scientific basis that combines the fundamentals of psychological science and creates conditions for its development.
• Applied (practical) is a science aimed at obtaining a specific result. She explores ways to apply scientific knowledge to everyday life or profession. Its goal is to develop specific recommendations for improving mental life, as well as to receive the very feedback that makes it possible to check the plausibility (or implausibility) of scientific theories. Applied science is closely related to psychiatry, psychotherapy, educational work, and training.

Types of psychology answer the question: how does psychology work. What exactly psychological science does can be understood by studying its sections, directions, and spheres in more detail.

Main sections of academic psychology.

Branches of psychology are formed on different grounds: according to the purpose of the activity, according to the subject or object of research, according to connections with other research practices:

• Age - studies psycho-emotional activity and personality formation at different stages of life from birth to death (childhood, adolescence, gerontopsychology).
• Social – studies the patterns of life of people included in social groups or communities.
• Differential - studies individual psychophysiological differences between people, behavioral characteristics, and individual properties of higher nervous activity.
• Abnormal - studies the manifestations of various disorders in the functioning of the brain.
• Clinical (medical, pathopsychology) – studies mental phenomena from the point of view of their relationship with diseases.
• Cognitive – studies the cognitive processes of the human psyche (focused on the study of feelings, memory, imagination, willpower, logical thinking).
• Advisory – systematizes and describes the processes of providing psychological assistance.
• Animal psychology does not study the psyche of animals in itself, but in order to explore the premises of human consciousness.
• Pedagogical – develops the psychological foundations of teaching and upbringing.
• Psycholinguistics - studies the inner world of a person who interacts with the world through speech.

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Main sections and directions of applied psychology.

Applied psychology is a vast, branched network of branches and disciplines, within which there are many subcategories related to each other and to other sciences. The areas of applied psychology are:

• Psychocorrection: targeted impact on the psyche in order to bring it into line with age or other standards.
• Psychodiagnostics: development and application of various methods for recognizing the psychological characteristics of a particular person or group of people (testing, questionnaires).
• Psychotherapy: providing psychological assistance to mentally healthy people, as well as clients with personality disorders.
• Psychological counseling: helping mentally healthy people in difficult life situations.

Applied science combines fields aimed at providing practical help to people who need it. Regardless of origin, status, age, those who can seek psychological help:

• Does not or cannot communicate with others or establish social connections.
• Plans or builds his own business.
• Is in constant conflict with others or with himself.
• He is going through a difficult life situation.
• Feels that the relationship with her partner is on the verge of breaking.
• Concerned about the behavior of teenage children.
• Experiences constant apathy, loss of strength, aggression, irritability.
• Suffers from panic attacks, phobias, and fears.
• Can't cope with his bad habits.
• Wants to choose a profession or is thinking about changing profession.

The main tasks of science

How did psychology emerge as a science? It all started when thinkers and philosophers began to pay attention to mental processes. This became the main objective of the teaching. Researchers analyzed the features of all processes directly related to the psyche. They believed that this direction reflects reality, that is, all events influence the psycho-emotional state of a person, which prompts him to take one action or another.

The analysis of all phenomena related to the psyche and their development is the second task of science. Then a third, important stage in psychology appeared - the study of all the physiological mechanisms that control mental phenomena.

If we talk about the tasks briefly, we can divide them into several points:

1. Psychology should teach us to understand all psychological processes.
2. After this, we learn to control them, and then completely manage them.
3. We direct all knowledge into the development of psychology, which is closely related to many humanities and natural sciences.

Thanks to the main tasks, fundamental psychology (that is, science for the sake of science) was divided into several branches, which include the study of children's characters, behavior in the work environment, temperament and traits of creative, technical and sports individuals.

Branches of psychology

Modern psychology is a multidisciplinary science. Branches of psychology are relatively independent developing areas. They are conventionally divided into fundamental (general) and applied (special).

The fundamental branches of psychology are of general importance in the study of mental phenomena. This is the basis that unites all branches of psychology and also serves as the basis for their development. Fundamental branches are usually called “general psychology.” The main concepts that general psychology considers are: cognitive processes (sensations, perceptions, attention, ideas, memory, imagination, thinking, speech, emotions, will, reflection), mental properties (abilities, motivation, temperament, character) and mental states . The emergence of general psychology as a fundamental branch is associated with the name of S. L. Rubinstein, who in 1940 created the fundamental work “Fundamentals of General Psychology.”

Applied branches of psychology are those that have practical significance. Such branches include, for example, educational psychology, developmental psychology, differential psychology, social psychology, clinical psychology, legal psychology, sports psychology and many others[2].

Techniques used by science

All stages of the development of psychology as a science are associated with great minds, thinkers and philosophers, who developed an absolutely unique field that studies the behavior, character and skills of people. History confirms that the founders of the doctrine were Hippocrates, Plato and Aristotle - authors and researchers of antiquity. It was they who suggested (of course, at different periods of time) that there are several types of temperament that are reflected in behavior and goals.

Psychology, before becoming a full-fledged science, has come a long way and affected almost every famous philosopher, doctor and biologist. One of these representatives is Thomas Aquinas and Avicenna. Later, at the end of the 16th century, Rene Descartes participated in the development of psychology. In his opinion, the soul is a substance within a substance. It was Descartes who first introduced the word “dualism” into use, which means the presence of spiritual energy inside the physical body, which cooperate very closely with each other. Reason, as the philosopher established, is the manifestation of our soul. Despite the fact that many of the scientist’s theories were ridiculed and refuted several centuries later, he became the main founder of psychology as a science.

Immediately after the works of Rene Descartes, new treatises and teachings began to appear, written by Otto Kasman, Rudolf Gocklenius, Sergei Rubinshein, and William James. They went further and began to promulgate new theories. For example, W. James at the end of the 19th century proved the existence of a stream of consciousness through clinical research. The main task of the philosopher and psychologist was to discover not only the soul, but also its structure. James proposed that we are a dual being, inhabited by both subject and object. Let's look at the contributions of other equally significant scientists, such as Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt and Carl Gustav Jung, etc.

Psychology as an independent science

The formation of psychology as a science

1.1. The concept of "psychology"

Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology. Eros, the son of Aphrodite, fell in love with a very beautiful young woman, Psyche. Aphrodite, dissatisfied that her son, a celestial, wanted to unite his fate with a mere mortal, forced Psyche to go through a series of tests. But Psyche’s love was so strong that it touched the goddesses and gods who decided to help her. Eros, in turn, managed to convince Zeus, the supreme deity of the Greeks, to turn Psyche into a goddess. Thus, the lovers were united forever.

For the Greeks, this myth was a classic example of true love, the highest realization of the human soul. Therefore, Psyche - a mortal who has gained immortality - became a symbol of the soul searching for its ideal.

The very word “psychology”

from the Greek words
“psyche”
(soul) and
“logos”
(study, science) first appeared only in the 18th century (Christian Wolf).

Psychology has a short history, formed at the end of the last century. However, the first attempts to describe human mental life and explain the reasons for human actions are rooted in the distant past. So, even in ancient times, doctors understood that in order to recognize diseases it was necessary to be able to describe a person’s consciousness and find the reason for his actions.

1. Psychology as the science of the soul.

Until the beginning of the 18th century, the presence of a soul was recognized by everyone. Moreover, throughout history there have been both idealistic (for example, the soul, as a manifestation of the divine mind) and materialistic (for example, the soul as the finest matter, pneuma) theories of the soul. The soul was seen as an explanatory, but itself inexplicable force, which was the root cause of all processes in the body, including its own “mental movements.”

Psychology as a science of the soul arose more than two thousand years ago and developed within philosophical science, as its integral part.

2. Psychology as the science of consciousness.

At the end of the 17th century, in connection with the development of natural sciences and the strengthening of a strictly causal worldview, the concept of the soul, which is hidden behind observable phenomena, was excluded from science. Since the 18th century, psychology begins to be considered as a science of consciousness. Moreover, consciousness was the ability to feel, think, desire. The place of the soul was taken by phenomena that a person finds “in himself”, turning to his “inner mental activity.” Unlike the soul, the phenomena of consciousness are not something assumed, but actually given.

Since the end of the 18th century, psychology first emerged as a relatively independent field of knowledge, covering all aspects of mental life, which were previously considered in different departments of philosophy (the general doctrine of the soul, the theory of knowledge, ethics), oratory (the doctrine of affects) and medicine (the doctrine of temperaments).

The extension of the natural scientific, albeit mechanistic, worldview to the “region of the spirit” led to the idea of ​​​​the formation of all mental abilities in individual experience.

The study of consciousness has acutely raised the question: how does the human body react to information received from the senses? It was assumed that all our knowledge stems from sensations. The basic elements that make up sensations are combined according to the law of association of ideas. Through sensations are created by association of perceptual ideas that underlie an even more complex idea.

In 1879, at the University of Leipzig, Wilhelm Wundt began to study the content and structure of consciousness on a scientific basis, i.e. combining theoretical constructs with reality testing. He went down in the history of psychology as the founder of scientific psychology, because he legitimized the right of experiment to participate in the study of consciousness.

Unlike the associationist

he laid the foundation
for the structuralist
approach to consciousness, setting the goal of studying the “elements” of consciousness, identifying and describing its simplest structures.
It was assumed that the mental elements of consciousness are sensations, images, and feelings. The role of psychology was to provide as detailed a description of these elements as possible. Structuralists used the method of experimental introspection (
subjects who had undergone preliminary training described how they felt when they found themselves in a particular situation).

At the same time, a new approach to the study of consciousness emerged. Since 1881 in the USA, William James, inspired by the teachings of Charles Darwin, argued that “conscious life” is a continuous flow, and does not consist of a number of discrete elements. The problem is to understand the function of consciousness and its role in the survival of the individual. He hypothesized that the role of consciousness is to enable adaptation to different situations, either by repeating already developed forms of behavior, or changing them, or mastering new actions. He placed the main emphasis on the external aspects of the psyche, and not on internal phenomena. The main method of study remains introspection, which allows us to find out how an individual develops awareness of the activity in which he indulges.

The question of the possibility of an objective study of the phenomena of consciousness turned out to be fatal for the stage in the development of psychology as a science.

Beginning in the 1960s, attempts were made to create physiological psychology through the introduction of physiological techniques in the study of sensations. However, the accuracy of physiological methods was undermined by the inaccuracy of subjective psychological testimony and the contradictory nature of their interpretations. And without comparison with direct data of consciousness, physiological indicators were deprived of psychological significance.

Therefore, having arisen in the 70s of the 19th century, psychophysiological laboratories,

and then, after 25-30 years, the institutions caused disappointment in the scientific capabilities of such psychology.

It should also be noted that if scientists of the 19th century began to consider elementary psychophysiological processes (sensations, movements) as natural processes subject to study by precise scientific methods, then the highest phenomena of mental life (consciousness, thinking) continued to be considered manifestations of the spiritual world, which can only be studied through their subjective description.

Thus, psychology was actually divided into natural scientific or physiological psychology and descriptive or subjective psychology.

The above points led psychology as a science of consciousness to a dead end and allowed us to talk about a crisis in psychology.

3. Psychology as a science of behavior.

An attempt to overcome the crisis was made by American scientists led by J. Watson, proposing a new direction in psychology -
behaviorism
(the science of behavior). The emergence of this direction was greatly influenced by the teachings of I.P. Pavlova on conditioned reflexes.

It was assumed that “consciousness” is nothing more than a subjective concept, inaccessible to objective research, and therefore the subject of scientific research should be only external behavior, which, according to behaviorists, is the result of the influence of needs and conditioned reflexes built on top of them.

Thus, an attempt was made to move from the phenomena of consciousness to an objective study of behavior. The dependence of behavior and learning on various conditions could be described objectively, without resorting to guesswork about what the animal feels, thinks and wants (research was initially carried out on animals, and then we moved on to the objective study of human behavior).

However, with behavior, as a subject of psychology, the same thing happened with the phenomena of consciousness. Criticism began along two main lines.

Firstly,

Although behavior is something objective, its psychological content turned out to be inaccessible to objective registration. Movements must be interpreted and correlated with the goals of behavior, so that the subject understands the situation, ways and means of achieving his goals. Without such an interpretation, physical and physiological changes do not constitute behavior. Representatives of behaviorism were unable to provide a psychological analysis of behavior, but moreover, they were unable to distinguish it from those reactions that are not behavior in the psychological sense - from the reactions of internal organs, from the movement of physical bodies, the operation of machines. If every movement and even change is behavior, then the latter is not the subject of psychology. If in behavior, as a subject of psychology, there is something else beyond movement or changes in the body, then what?

Secondly,

Studying behavior without studying the phenomena of consciousness, representatives of behaviorism were faced with a choice: either move on to the study of the physiological mechanisms of behavior (become physiologists), or study behavior, the formation of its new forms, only as a relationship between stimuli and reactions.

Behaviorism was unable to highlight the psychological content of behavior and was unable to explain behavior without the help of traditional psychological “variables” (at the same time, no one denies the significance of behaviorism’s contribution to the development of psychological science).

4. Psychology as the scientific study of behavior and mental activity, as well as the practical application of acquired knowledge.

The historical meaning of the crisis in psychology was that psychology began to develop in two directions: natural science and explanatory.

The main task of overcoming the crisis, as seen by the domestic psychologist L.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) is as follows:

– make the subject of research the highest human-specific forms of conscious activity;

– approach them from the point of view of scientific analysis;

– explain their origin causally;

- establish objective laws to which they obey.

Numerous studies have shown that higher mental activity

is built on the model of external activity, is a derivative of external objective activity and a process that serves it. In humans, it is mediated by tools and socially accepted ways of using them.

Higher mental functions specific to humans come from external objective activity from forms of verbal communication between people and are mediated by signs.

Interiorization

– the process of transforming intersubjective forms of human activity into intrasubjective, “subjective” forms. This is the path of “growing from the outside in” and the further existence of mental activity within the external as its own psychological mechanism, which opens up the possibility of purposeful control of various external objective actions.

Exteriorization

– externalizing the results of mental actions carried out internally.

Having arisen from external activity, internal mental activity is automated, reduced, and part of it goes beyond the limits of consciousness. Hence the approach to the study of mental functions through the study of external activity, communication, as well as through the study of the processes of internalization and exteriorization.

Thus, the question: “How can the subjective world of man be studied objectively?” - a question that became fatal for many psychological concepts and led more than once to a change in the scientific paradigm of analysis, received a new answer.

S. Rubinstein

Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein is one of the founders of a new school in psychology. He worked at the beginning of the 20th century at Moscow State University, was a teacher and at the same time conducted research. Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein's main contribution was made to educational psychology, logic and history. He studied in detail personality types, their temperament and emotions. It was Rubinstein who created the well-known principle of determinism, which meant that all human actions and actions are directly related to the external (surrounding) world. Thanks to his research, he was awarded numerous medals, orders and prizes.

Sergei Leonidovich described his theories in detail in books, which were subsequently put into circulation. These include “The Principle of Creative Amateur Performance” and “Problems of Psychology in the Works of Karl Marx.” In his second work, Rubinstein considered society as a single whole that follows a single path. To do this, the scientist had to conduct a deep analysis of the Soviet people and compare them with foreign psychology.

Sergei Leonidovich also became the founder of the study of personalities, but, unfortunately, he was unable to complete the work. However, his contribution significantly advanced the development of Russian psychology and strengthened its status as a science.

O. Kasman

Otto Kasmann played a significant role in psychology, despite the fact that for a long period he was the main pastor and theologian in the German city of Stade. It was this public religious figure who called all psychic phenomena scientific objects. There is practically no information about this founder, since quite a lot of events happened over four centuries. However, Otto Kasmann left us valuable works called Psychologia anthropologica and Angelographia.

The theologian and activist made adjustments to the term “anthropology” and explained that the biological nature of man is directly related to the abstract world. Despite the fact that Kasman made an invaluable contribution to psychology, the pastor himself carefully studied anthropology and tried to draw a parallel between this teaching and philosophy.

R. Gocklenius

Rudolf Gocklenius is an important link in psychology, despite the fact that he was a doctor of physical, mathematical and medical sciences. The scientist lived in the 16th and 17th centuries and during his long life he created many important works. Like Otto Kasmann, Goklenius began to use the word “psychology” in everyday life.

An interesting fact, but Goklenius was Kasman’s personal teacher. After receiving his doctorate, Rudolf began to study philosophy and psychology in detail. That is why today we are familiar with the name of Goclenius, because he was a representative of neo-scholasticism, which combined both religion and philosophical teachings. Well, since the scientist lived and worked in Europe, he spoke on behalf of the Catholic Church, which created a new direction of scholasticism - neo-scholasticism.

W. Wundt

The name of Wundt is known in psychology as well as Jung and Rubinstein. Wilhelm Maximilian lived in the 19th century and was an active practitioner of experimental psychology. This movement included non-standard and unique practices that made it possible to study all psychological phenomena.

Like Rubinstein, Wundt studied determinism, objectivity, and the fine line between human activity and consciousness. The main feature of the scientist is that he was an experienced physiologist who understood all the physical processes of living organisms. To some extent, it was much easier for Wilhelm Maximilian to devote his life to such a science as psychology. Over the course of his life, he trained dozens of figures, including Bekhterev and Serebrenikov.

Wundt sought to understand how our mind works, so he often conducted experiments that allowed him to figure out chemical reactions in the body. It was the work of this scientist that laid the foundation for the creation and promotion of such a science as neuropsychology. Wilhelm Maximilian loved to observe people's behavior in different situations, so he developed a unique technique - introspection. Since Wundt himself was also an inventor, many experiments were worked out by the scientist himself. However, introspection did not include the use of devices or instruments, but only observation, as a rule, of one’s own mental phenomena and processes.

Brentano: psychology as the study of intentional acts

At the same time as Wundt, the philosopher Franz Brentano (1838-1917) proposed his program for a new psychology. It was outlined in his work “Psychology from an Empirical Point of View” (1874). The subject of psychology, just like Wundt, was considered consciousness. However, its nature was thought to be different.

According to Brentano, the field of psychology is not the content of consciousness (sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings), but its acts, mental actions, thanks to which the content appears. The color or image of an object is one thing. Another is the act of seeing color or judging an object. The study of acts is a unique sphere unknown to physiology. The specificity of an act is in its intention, its focus on some object to which this act is chained.

Brentano's concept became the source of several branches of Western psychology. It gave impetus to the development of the concept of mental function as a special activity of consciousness, which was not reduced to either elements or processes, but was considered initially active and objective.

K. Jung

Carl Gustav Jung is perhaps one of the most popular and ambitious scientists who devoted his life to psychology and psychiatry. Moreover, the figure not only tried to understand psychological phenomena, he also opened a new direction - analytical psychology.

Jung carefully worked out the archetypes or structures (patterns of behavior) that come into being with a person. The scientist carefully studied each character and temperament, connected them with one link and supplemented them with new information by observing his patients. Jung also proved that several people, being in a single team, can unconsciously perform similar actions. And it was thanks to these works that the scientist began to analyze the individuality of each person, to study whether it exists at all.

It was this figure who suggested that all archetypes are innate, but their main feature is that they develop over hundreds of years and are passed on from generation to generation. Subsequently, all types directly influence our choices, actions, feelings and emotions.

History[edit | edit wiki text]

Main article: History of psychology

Domestic psychologist S. L. Rubinstein at the time of 1940 characterized psychology from a historical point of view as follows [13]:

“Psychology is both a very old and a very young science - it has a 1000-year past behind it, and, nevertheless, it is still in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline dates back only decades, but its main problems have occupied its philosophical thought for as long as philosophy has existed. Years of experimental research were preceded by centuries of philosophical reflection, on the one hand, and millennia of practical knowledge of people, on the other.”

Antiquity[edit | edit wiki text]

Early ancient authors often paid attention in their work to the problems of human nature, his soul and mind. To date, from the entire spectrum of views of ancient authors, only the classification of temperaments of Hippocrates has reached, although many of Plato’s ideas influenced the development of the philosophical foundations of ideas about the psyche, in particular, the idea of ​​​​a person as a being torn apart by an internal conflict of motives, was reflected in psychoanalytic ideas about the structure of personality. Like most other sciences, the “grandfather” of psychology can rightly be called Aristotle, who in his treatise “On the Soul” gave a detailed analysis of the subject of psychological research.

Middle Ages[edit | edit wiki text]

Medieval writings on psychology in Europe were generally concentrated on questions of faith and reason, and Christian philosophers, starting with Thomas Aquinas, borrowed ideas from Aristotle

. Among the Eastern scientists, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) paid attention to psychological issues.

New time[edit | edit wiki text]

Rudolf Gocklenius

In 1590, Rudolf Gocklenius first used the term "psychology" to refer to the science of the soul. His contemporary Otto Kasmann is considered the first to use the term “psychology” in the modern scientific sense.

Representatives of modern times (for example, Rene Descartes) believed that the body and soul have a different nature - this was a new look at the problem of psychology. “The soul and body live and act according to different laws and have different natures,” wrote Descartes.

XVIII century[edit | edit wiki text]

On August 3, 1795, the British royal astronomer Neville Maskelyne first discovered errors made by his assistant David Kinnbrook in the calculations. Kinnbroek was fired, but error analysis by another astronomer, Friedrich Bezzel, initiated the systematic study of reaction times, individual differences, and mental chronometry .

) as criteria for cognitive processes.

XIX century[edit | edit wiki text]

Wilhelm Wundt

The nineteenth century became for psychology the century of its gradual emergence as a scientific discipline, the separation of relevant areas from philosophy, medicine, and exact sciences.

Ernst Weber explores the dependence of the intensity of sensations on the intensity of the stimuli that cause them.

Hermann Helmholtz explores the nervous system as the basis of the psyche, formulates ideas about “automatic conclusions” that underlie the perception of space.

However, the main name in the history of the formation of psychology as a science is Wilhelm Wundt. A student and colleague of Helmholtz, Wundt in 1879 opened the world's first psychological laboratory, in which studies of the phenomena of consciousness took place using the method of introspection. This year is considered the year of birth of psychology as a science.

XX century[edit | edit wiki text]

The first decades[edit | edit wiki text]

The very beginning of the twentieth century was marked by rapid growth in several directions. On the one hand, psychoanalysis is actively developing - a school of psychotherapy, originally based on the works of Sigmund Freud, in which a person was described as a system of several independent personality structures fighting with each other - It (Id), I (Ego), Super-I (Superego). ). In this conflict, the It represents the biological needs of a person, of which psychoanalysts paid the main attention to sexual needs, and the Super-Ego represents the requirements of society and culture. The development of this school had a strong influence not only on practice, but also on science, forcing scientists to pay attention to phenomena that are beyond consciousness, to the unconscious determinants of mental activity. The ideas of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis were criticized, developed and expanded in various areas of depth psychology, mainly by Freud's former colleagues such as Alfred Adler (individual psychology) and Carl Gustav Jung (analytical psychology), and later by neo-Freudians such as Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, Jacques Lacan and others.

In the USA, behaviorism is actively developing - a school of psychology founded by J. Watson, based on the works of I. P. Pavlov and E. Thorndike on learning. Behaviorists followed the positivist requirement to exclude from the consideration of science all phenomena other than those directly observable. A person was viewed as a “black box” into which stimuli enter and reactions to these stimuli come out.

Gestalt psychology is developing in Germany (M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka, W. Köhler), which is a further development on the path of studying the phenomena of consciousness. Unlike their predecessors, the Gestaltists did not try to identify the “bricks” from which consciousness is built; on the contrary, they believed that their main law was that “the whole is always greater than the sum of its parts.” Within the framework of this school, many phenomena of perception and thinking were discovered.

The First World War stimulated the development of applied aspects of psychology, primarily psychodiagnostics, as the army needed a means of assessing the capabilities of soldiers. Intelligence tests are being developed (A. Binet, R. Yerkes).

1930-1940s[edit | edit wiki text]

The Nazis came to power in Germany, as a result of which many psychologists (among whom there were many Jews) were forced to emigrate to the United States. Gestalt psychology practically ceases to exist, but K. Lewin and the followers of the Gestaltists become the main figures of American social psychology. Nevertheless, thinkers such as Carl Jung and Martin Heideger remained working in Nazi Germany. Jung continues to develop his teaching about the collective unconscious; in 1934 he released one of his fundamental works, Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious

».

Among behaviorists, on the one hand, attempts begin, while maintaining a natural scientific foundation, to introduce intrapsychic variables into the explanation of behavior (E. Tolman, K. Hull), on the other hand, B.F. Skinner develops “radical behaviorism”, developing the theory of operant learning .

J. Piaget publishes the results of studies of thinking in which similar types of errors were found in children of the same age, which are practically no longer found in older children.

Psychological and psychotherapeutic practice is actively developing. Various areas of depth psychology continued to develop, and forms of psychotherapy alternative to psychoanalysis (Gestalt therapy, etc.) were being formed.

L. S. Vygotsky formulates the basic principles of cultural-historical psychology based on Marxism. Within the framework of this direction, the need was postulated to study personality directly in the process of development, occurring under the influence of history and culture. On the basis of this direction, the theory of activity was subsequently built.

The resolution “On pedological perversions in the system of People's Commissariat for Education” (1936), which eliminated pedology, practically froze the development of psychological science in the USSR for several decades.

The Second World War causes a new surge in the activity of psychologists in the field of applied technologies. Particular attention is paid to social psychology and ergonomics.

1950-1960s[edit | edit wiki text]

These decades are the era of the flourishing of psychological science, active growth in many directions. In modern textbooks, most of the material is devoted to experiments and research conducted during this period.

The theory of behaviorism could not provide answers to many questions that developing industry and military technology posed to science. The development of the most effective forms of presenting information on control panels of complex devices and other tasks required active study of not only simple reactions to stimuli, but the complex mechanisms underlying perception. As a result of such a request, a field begins to develop that will later be called “cognitive psychology” - D. Broadbent conducts his research into the mechanisms of attention, publishes the famous article about “The Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two” by J. Miller.

Behavior modification techniques based on the theory of behaviorism are actively developing. J. Volpe develops a technique of systematic desensitization, which turns out to be very effective in the treatment of various types of phobias.

Against this background, humanistic psychology and psychotherapy appear as an attempt to overcome the reduction of man to an automaton or animal (the theories of behaviorism and psychoanalysis). Humanistic psychologists propose to consider a person as a being of a higher level, endowed with free will and the desire for self-actualization.

There is a rapid development of social psychology in the United States. Solomon Ash, Muzafer Sherif, Stanley Milgram, Leon Festinger and other famous psychologists conduct their famous studies.

In the late 60s, along with the growing popularity of New Age culture, psychology was strongly influenced by mysticism; In the wake of the success of research into psychedelic substances and new areas of consciousness, transpersonal psychology emerges, and a number of schools of personal growth training are developing, some of which eventually turn into religious cults: (Scientology, Lifespring).

In 1966, the departments of psychology were created at Moscow State University and Leningrad State University, as well as the department of psychiatry and medical psychology at RUDN University, which demonstrates the end of 30 years of persecution of psychologists. To a significant extent, this was due to the emergence of demand for psychologists in production and in the army. Engineering psychology is actively developing in the USSR. However, due to objective reasons, domestic psychology has to remain extremely ideological in accordance with Marxist-Leninist constructs - this circumstance will give its further development a certain specificity. To this day, Marxist-Leninist theories (see reflection theory) one way or another retain influence on the training program for psychologists in some Russian universities.

1970-1980s[edit | edit wiki text]

There is a rapid growth of cognitive psychology, which followed the path of gradual refutation of its initial postulates about the essence of the human psyche as an information processing system with limited bandwidth. During this period, psychology established active connections with linguistics, which became inevitable after the “Chomskyan revolution”; psycholinguistics emerges.

In other areas of psychology, there is a stable growth and accumulation of knowledge, at the same time, the feeling of the “eternal crisis” of psychological thought is again intensifying, since none of the current directions gives hope for the imminent appearance of a truly complete theory that explains human behavior.

Modernity[edit | edit wiki text]

Currently, methods based on various types of tomography have become important in the study of the psyche. The use of tomography makes it possible to determine the structure and study the functioning of neural networks. To study the connections between the functioning of the psyche for various types of mental activity under various conditions with the structure and functioning of the brain, functional magnetic resonance imaging is used, which makes it possible to determine the activation of brain regions during its normal functioning (see, for example, [14]). To study mental processes at the molecular level, including metabolism, transport of substances, ligand-receptor interactions, gene expression, etc., positron emission tomography (PET) is used (see, for example, [15]). In particular, PET is used to study the participation of various neurotransmitters in neurophysiological and mental processes.

Who is a psychologist today?

Today, a psychologist, unlike a philosopher, must obtain at least a bachelor's degree from a university in order to practice and research. He is a representative of his science and is called upon not only to provide psychological assistance, but also to contribute to the development of his activities. What does a professional psychologist do:

• Reveals archetypes and establishes the character and temperament of the individual.
• Analyzes the behavior of his patient, identifies the root cause and eradicates it if necessary. This allows you to change your lifestyle, get rid of negative thoughts and help you find motivation and purpose.
• Helps to get out of a depressed state, get rid of apathy, discover the meaning of life and start looking for it.
• Struggling with psychological trauma that occurred either in childhood or throughout life.
• Analyzes the patient's behavior in society and also finds the root cause. As a rule, in many cases, the family situation, relationships with peers, relatives and just strangers play an important role.

A psychologist should not be confused with a psychiatrist. The second is a scientist who has received a medical degree and has the right to engage in diagnosis and treatment. It identifies, analyzes and examines mental disorders from the most minor and subtle to the most aggressive. The psychiatrist's task is to determine whether a person is sick or not. If a deviation is detected, the doctor develops a unique technique that can help the patient, relieve his symptoms or completely cure him. Despite widespread controversy, it has been concluded that a psychiatrist is not a medical specialist, although he works directly with patients and various medications.

Psychology is relevant and important in the life of each of us. This science is a vivid example of human evolution, when, asking ourselves countless questions, we developed and each time stepped to a new stage. She studies the type of people, the phenomena when in different situations they unite in groups, disperse and lead a lonely lifestyle, show aggression, or, conversely, experience emotional overexcitation and happiness. Motivation, goals, depression and apathy, values ​​and experiences - this is only a small part that is studied by such a unique science as psychology.

Methods of psychology.

Almost all methods of psychology can be combined into two groups:

• Empirical. Based on the collection, recording, and interpretation of facts. They use methods of mathematical statistics that allow them to work with large volumes of data and build patterns.
• Experimental. Based on modeling situations of interaction between the individual and the environment, where the necessary psychological reactions could be observed. These are the so-called social experiments (Stanford prison experiment, M. Sheriff's cave of robbers, Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment).

The main object of psychological research is human psychology, therefore science uses the same research methods that can be applied in everyday life:

1. Observation is a descriptive method that involves purposefully perceiving and describing a person.
2. An experiment is a specially conducted psychological experience that helps to gain new knowledge about the subject.
3. Self-observation is a purposeful and meaningful observation of one’s emotions, reactions, desires, motives, which should not develop into self-digging.
4. An interview is an oral or written conversation that helps clarify and identify a range of problems that are not observable.
5. A survey is a short-term written or oral test with pre-formulated questions that helps assess and identify individual psychological differences, skills, and abilities.
6. Testing is the study, identification, assessment of certain psychological qualities after passing specially prepared tests.
7. Biographical research is a method in which a person’s life path is studied, diagnosed, corrected, and predicted.

As a rule, in order to provide the psychologist with the most accurate and comprehensive psychological portrait of the interlocutor, methods are combined for each specific case. For example, tests and interviews may be used in hiring. During a psychotherapy session, a psychologist can use observation and experimentation, and ask the client to do his homework - to observe himself.