Interpersonal interaction - General characteristics of interpersonal relationships as a socio-psychological phenomenon

Being an independent being, endowed with freedom of choice and creative potential, a personality cannot develop outside the social environment, outside interaction with other individuals.

Definition 1

In modern scientific literature, interaction is understood as the actions of individuals directed towards each other; a set of methods that a person uses in the process of achieving certain goals and solving practical problems.

The understanding of interpersonal interaction is based on the category of social connection.

Definition 2

A social connection is the dependence of individuals, which is realized through social actions carried out with a focus on another person with the expectation of an appropriate reaction from the participant in the interaction.

Are you an expert in this subject area? We invite you to become the author of the Directory Working Conditions

Content

1. Concept, types and functions of communication 3
2. The role of perception in the process of communication. Errors of perception 8

3. Workshop

Correlate the proposed socio-psychological concepts and their definitions:

a) stereotype;

b) prejudice;

1) one-sided, distorted and, as a rule, prejudiced view, characteristic of representatives of professional, age, social, ethnic groups or classes;

2) personal antipathy or active hostility towards another social group; however, individuals may or may not participate in discriminatory activities based on their views 13

Literature 15

The concept of “interpersonal relationships”

Each of us has our own principles, life values, moral principles, priorities and outlook on life. The interaction of one person with the people around him, the ability to establish connections with them is called interpersonal relationships.

There is a concept called “Donbar number”, which denotes the maximum comfortable number of connections for a person. Its value ranges from 100 to 230, with an average of 150 contacts.

Life in society is different, and therefore relationships are varied. Their variety depends on many factors and is classified into the following types:

• informal\formal;
• business\personal;
• practical\emotional;
• subordination\parity.

Let us consider each type of interpersonal relationship in detail below.

Concept of personality, communication and interpersonal relationships

In the context of psychology, a personality is an individual who acts as a subject of relations in society, as well as as a subject in his own conscious activity. Personality also means a system of properties of an individual, which manifests itself in human activity.

According to R. Cattell, personality is a concept that characterizes a person’s behavior in a given situation.

G. Allport believes that “a personality is something, and it does something. Personality is what lies behind specific actions within the individual himself.”

Comment

As you know, communication is inherent in a person as a social being. Without the latter, no interaction with other members of society can take place.

Thus, communication is a certain process in which interpersonal interaction takes place. This process is determined by the needs of the subjects who interact and is aimed at satisfying these needs.

Communication is more important than ever in the modern world, as the amount of information increases. In addition, the number of “person-to-person” professions is rapidly growing.

Definition 1

Interpersonal relationships are a set of connections that develop between people in the form of feelings, judgments and appeals to each other.

Note 1

Interpersonal relationships are based on communication. As is known, the very first leading activity of an individual (infancy) is emotional and personal communication. It is with its help that the psyche develops rapidly. Communication passes through the entire development of the child, and next time appears in the form of a leading activity in adolescence as intimate-personal communication.

There are several stages in the development of interpersonal relationships.

1. Acquaintance. This stage is associated with the emergence of mutual contact and individuals’ assessment of each other.
2. Friendly relations. The emergence of interpersonal relationships and the formation of a basic level of trust.
3. Companionship. At this stage, a convergence of views occurs.

There are several main types of interpersonal relationships:

1. Industrial interpersonal relations.
2. Everyday interpersonal relationships.
3. Formal interpersonal relationships.
4. Informal interpersonal relationships.

General characteristics of interpersonal relationships as a socio-psychological phenomenon

The behavioral component of interpersonal relationships is realized in specific actions. If one of the partners likes the other, then the behavior will be friendly, aimed at helping and productive cooperation. If you don’t like the object, then the interactive side of communication will be difficult. Between these “behavioral” poles there are a large number of forms of interaction, the implementation of which is determined by the sociocultural norms of the groups to which the communicants belong.

In scientific and popular literature, such a concept as “emotional attractiveness” is often used - a person’s ability to understand the mental states of a communication partner and, especially, to empathize with him. The latter (the ability to empathize) is manifested in responsiveness to various states of the partner. This concept is somewhat narrower than “interpersonal attractiveness.” It should be clarified that this parameter itself, emotional attractiveness, does not ensure either productive joint activity or high cohesion. On the other hand, even without the emotional attraction of people, it is difficult to create a cohesive group.

A favorable prerequisite for the successful formation of interpersonal relationships is the mutual awareness of partners about each other, formed on the basis of interpersonal knowledge. The development of interpersonal relationships is largely determined by the characteristics of communicating people. These include gender, age, nationality, temperament, health, profession, experience in communicating with people and some personal characteristics.

The level of communication determines the degree of involvement and depth of self-disclosure of interlocutors in interpersonal interaction, as well as how fully present and how deeply immersed in the conversation its participants are.

Human interaction with the outside world is carried out in a system of objective relations that develop between people in their social life.

Objective relationships and connections inevitably and naturally arise in any real group. Interpersonal interaction is a contact between two or more subjects of activity, which can take any form (direct and indirect, long-term and short-term, in connection with the focus of the activity on any goal or in the logic of actual communication, emotionally rich or in this regard neutral, etc. .etc., etc.), but at the same time leads to a change in their behavior, the system of semantic formations, the nature of relationships, the activity-attitude disposition of the individual, etc. In addition, in social psychology, the term “interaction” describes a system of mutual actions, actions, acts that are characterized by the cause-and-effect nature of such activity of the two parties involved in interpersonal contact: after all, any manifestation of one of the participants in the interaction is both a stimulus for another behavioral act, and a peculiar reaction to previous actions of a partner or opponent

Interpersonal relationship systems

In addition to the above types of relationships, there is also a systematic division into rational and emotional relationships, as well as parity and subordination. Let's look at them in more detail:

• Rational relationships. It logically follows that the basis and goal of this type of relationship is the intention to receive benefits. A rational system of relations implies a certain mutual benefit for all participants in the communication.
• Emotional social connections are based on personal preferences, based on sensory contacts, which may not always be positive. Along with friendship and love, emotional relationships also include enmity, antipathy, and hatred.
• Parity contacts - communication between a couple or a group of people in this category is based on equality. The basis of these interpersonal relationships is complete freedom of choice.
• Subordination relationships that have a clear hierarchy. For example, this could be communication between a boss and subordinates.

Ways to improve interpersonal communications

Any communication involves the interaction of people with each other. In order for every conversation to be successful, psychologists pay a lot of attention to the development of interpersonal communications. By adhering to the following rules during contact with an opponent, you can significantly improve interpersonal communications:

Learn to abstract yourself from psychological barriers, which are a significant obstacle to fruitful communication. Internal barriers can arise quite often during a conversation. You can avoid them by concentrating on important points during the conversation. Don't forget about good manners and charm. Many people have access to such a “superpower” as charisma, thanks to which they can get everything they need from communication without any problems. This trait is not exclusively an innate quality, which means that it can be developed. Say “no” to psychophysical clamps. Loose or too constrained body movements will become a signal to the interlocutor about the presence of psychological and physical abnormalities. Perhaps the opponent will not be able to give a clear definition of this state, but he will immediately sense that something is wrong. In this regard, the success of your conversation will be in great question.

To avoid such cases, it is important to be able to relax during a conversation and, of course, to train. Become a protégé. If among your friends or acquaintances there are people who are excellent at communication, then you should try to watch them and imitate

By adopting an already proven model of behavior, you can achieve significant success. Talk as much as possible, especially for very shy people. Conversations on abstract topics about which everyone can express their opinion can help save you from feeling embarrassed: about the weather, about gasoline prices or traffic jams. This simple secret will help improve interpersonal relationships. Communication implies active interaction between individuals, but we should not forget that all people are different, and the approach to each should be purely individual. By communicating daily on a variety of topics with those around you, be it a work colleague or a supermarket clerk, you will gain invaluable experience in communicating in different styles and increase your self-confidence. Master the art of asking questions. Scientific research has shown that asking the right question is half the solution to the problem. During the conversation, the correct and accurate question will be the one that the opponent wants to answer and think about. In order to get a communication partner to talk, it is worth using open-ended questions, which usually begin with the words “why”, “why”, “how”, etc. In addition, during the conversation it is important to soften the questions so as not to offend the interlocutor.

Types and general characteristics of addictive behavior

Addictive behavior is understood as dependence on objects of inanimate nature, in contrast to the term “addictive behavior,” which is characterized by the desire to possess both objects of inanimate and animate nature (for example, dependence on other people). The main types of addictive behavior are addiction to psychoactive substances (tea, coffee, alcohol, tobacco, drugs), Internet addiction, and addiction to destructive cults.

In accordance with the listed objects, the following forms of addictive behavior are distinguished:

Ш chemical dependence (smoking, substance abuse, drug addiction, substance abuse, alcoholism);

Ш eating disorders (overeating, starvation, refusal to eat);

III gaming addiction (computer addiction, gambling);

Ш sexual addictions (bestiality, fetishism, pygmalionism, transvestism, exhibitionism, voyeurism, necrophilia, sadomasochism;

religious destructive behavior (religious fanaticism, involvement in a sect).

As people's lives change, new forms of addictive behavior emerge; for example, computer addiction is spreading extremely quickly today. At the same time, some forms are gradually losing the label of deviance.

Dependent (addictive) behavior is a form of deviant behavior of a person, which is associated with the abuse of something or someone for the purpose of self-regulation. The degree of severity of addictive behavior can be different - from almost normal behavior to severe forms of biological dependence, accompanied by severe somatic and mental pathology. In this regard, some authors distinguish addictive behavior from simply bad habits that do not reach the level of dependence and do not pose a mortal threat, for example, overeating or smoking. In turn, individual subtypes of addictive behavior represent continuums of various manifestations. For example, experts recognize that alcoholism (the clinical form of alcohol dependence) is not monolithic, and in fact it is more correct to speak of “alcoholism.”

An individual’s choice of one or another addiction object is partly determined by the specifics of its impact on the human body. As a rule, people differ in their individual predisposition to one or another object of addiction. The popularity of alcohol is largely due to the wide range of its effects - it can be used with equal success for stimulation, warming, relaxation, treating colds, increasing confidence and relaxation.

Various forms of addictive behavior tend to combine or transform into each other, which proves the commonality of the mechanisms of their functioning. For example, an experienced smoker, having given up cigarettes, may experience a constant desire to eat. A person addicted to heroin will often try to maintain remission with softer drugs or alcohol.

Consequently, despite the apparent external differences, the types of behavior under consideration have fundamentally similar psychological mechanisms. In this regard, there are common signs of addictive behavior.

First of all, addictive behavior manifests itself in a person’s persistent desire to change his psychophysical state. This desire is experienced by a person as impulsively categorical, irresistible, and unsatisfactory. Outwardly, this may look like a struggle with oneself, and more often - like a loss of self-control.

Addictive behavior does not appear suddenly; it is a continuous process of formation and development of addiction (dependence). Addiction has a beginning (often harmless), an individual course (with increasing dependence) and an outcome. The motivation for behavior is different at different stages of addiction.

Forms of interpersonal interaction

As a social being, man cannot help but communicate. Even when a writer creates a book in solitude, even in this case communication between him and the reader is assumed.

The following forms of communication are distinguished:

Friendly interaction is communication at a close psychological distance, which brings mutual pleasure and joy. Love is an intimate interaction between two people that leads to the development of both partners as individuals. Interaction in a student group or interest groups. Relationships within the work team. Communication in a psychological support group.

Relationships are divided in psychology into official and informal, personal and business. Establishing relationships and developing them is a delicate process that depends on many factors; and, first of all, from the ability to build social contacts.

Interpersonal interaction in a group is difficult to organize. The possibility of the group breaking up is high here; Without a good leader who can smooth out contradictions and give the team the mindset for high-quality teamwork, there will be no interaction.

Some people can maintain good friendly relationships with everyone in a business environment. These are people with high emotional intelligence and experience in the field of communications. They are social leaders by nature and, with the development of certain qualities, can become good managers.

Interpersonal interaction and its structure

An interaction between people can be characterized as interpersonal if it meets the following criteria:

— it involves a small number of people (usually a group of 2-3 people);

— this is a direct interaction: its participants are in spatial proximity, have the opportunity to see, hear each other, and provide feedback;

— each of the participants recognizes the irreplaceability and uniqueness of their partner, takes into account the peculiarities of their emotional state, self-esteem, and personal characteristics.

There are several related terms close to the concept of “interpersonal interaction” that need to be distinguished. Despite the fact that the terms “interpersonal relationships” and “interpersonal communication” “interpersonal interaction” are close in meaning, they indicate different aspects.

Thus, when discussing the concept of “interpersonal interaction”, it is necessary to highlight, first of all, the actions that individuals take in relation to each other, in addition, since the actions are performed by each of the parties, it is of interest how the interlocutors relate their goals and organize their achievement, i.e. .e. how reciprocity between participants in communication. The content of this concept emphasizes the activity of those communicating, which allows us to understand the forms and types of individual actions leading to mutual changes in behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes.

The concept of “interpersonal communication” is aimed at analyzing ways of exchanging information between partners, receiving and processing it.

The emotional and sensory aspect of interaction between people is emphasized in the concept of “interpersonal relationships ,” which includes interpersonal communication through the exchange of personally significant information, the emergence of mutual dependence and responsibility of people who come into contact.

In order to choose the most effective option for interacting with another person, it is necessary to navigate the current communication situation and understand its context. Analysis of the context of communication allows you to choose a method of behavior that is adequate to a given situation, and to correlate your own actions and the situation.

The nature of the goal, and the resulting distance between partners in a communication situation, allows us to distinguish three levels of communication:

Social-role level a person is expected to perform a certain role function, demonstrate knowledge of the norms of the social environment, and confirm his status. Contacts are limited to situational necessity: on the street, in transport, at a reception at an official institution. Basic principle: implementation of the norms and requirements of the social environment.

Business level The interests of the business are paramount, joint activities, the search for means to increase the effectiveness of cooperation, communication is psychologically detached. Basic principle: rationality. Intimate-personal level The main goal of communication is to satisfy the need for understanding, sympathy, experience, psychological closeness and trust are expected. Characterized by penetration into the inner world of other people, empathy. Basic principle: empathy.

The structure of any social situation includes the following elements as necessary:

1. roles of participants in interaction , that is, a set of instructions regarding how a person should behave if he has taken a fixed position among people, regarding which normative ideas have already been formed;

2. set and order of actions (or scenario sequences);

3. rules and norms governing the interaction and nature of the relationships between participants in a social situation, while the characteristics of the specific situation in which communication takes place imposes restrictions on their behavior and feelings.

After determining the type of social situation, the development of the process of interpersonal interaction involves building a position that allows participants in communication to achieve goals in given circumstances. From this point of view, interpersonal interaction is nothing more than the construction, formation of interpersonal space, that is, the organization of all elements of interaction in a certain order. It assumes:

– choosing a position in relation to another, adapting to each other’s positions;

– a clear definition of the spatio-temporal boundaries of the interaction situation, beyond which the chosen position becomes inappropriate;

– formalization of a position taken through the use of verbal and non-verbal means of communication.

When considering the spatial characteristics of interpersonal interaction, vertical and horizontal components can be distinguished.

The vertical component is expressed in ideas about the relative position of communication partners. Possible positions can be designated as follows: extension from above, extension from below, extension on an equal level.

The extension from above is expressed in a position of dominance, expressed in teachings, advice, condemnations, remarks, arrogant and patronizing intonations. The extension from below suggests a position of dependence, lack of initiative, insecurity, manifests itself as a request, an apology, lowering the head, and demonstrations of other forms of submission and dependence. The position of equality of the parties is manifested in appropriate forms of behavior: a calm look into the eyes of the interlocutor, open expression of feelings and desires, reasonable statements, willingness to listen to criticism addressed to oneself and readiness to discuss them.

The horizontal component of interpersonal interaction is expressed in the use (or refusal to use them) of interpersonal barriers, which can be external physical barriers as equivalents of psychological barriers: a table, a chair, crossed arms across the chest, etc. An obstacle may be the “closedness” of the personality of one or another party to the other person, which also creates a certain distance.

Zones of interpersonal communication, norms of spatial and temporal organization of communication are studied by proxemics. These norms differ in different cultures; distance parameters are determined by the size of the territory and the degree of population of each country. The classic classification of E. Hall is characteristic of American culture, S. D. Deryabo, V. A. Yasvin cite norms specific to Russian culture for approaching a person to a communication partner:

1) intimate distance – 0-50 cm (compare with American 0-45 cm). At this distance, the closest people communicate; the intrusion of strangers is considered a violation of personal space and causes negative emotions and aggression. Tension and irritation on a crowded bus are largely caused by the need to tolerate the presence of strangers in your intimate area.

2) Personal distance – 0.5-1.2 (similar to personal distance in American culture). Friends and good acquaintances who trust each other usually talk at this distance.

3) Social distance – 1.2-2 m. Corresponds to informal, friendly communication; at this distance it is convenient to exchange news with work colleagues.

4) Formal distance – 2-4 m. Typical for business relationships. At this distance, it is good to communicate with superiors or subordinates, as well as begin negotiations with partners.

5) Public distance – more than 4 m. Allows you to refrain from communication or exchange ritual strokes without the risk of being branded as a tactless person. Public distance allows you to painlessly and unnoticed to leave the space of communication. This distance is typical for communicating with large audiences.

Spatial characteristics of interpersonal interaction also include ways for an individual to identify and designate the territory that he considers “his own.” At the physical level, this could be an office, a desk; at the emotional level – the right to one’s own mood, attitude towards something; at the role level – the right to choose a profession, type of occupation, individual ways of performing activities.

Thus, the space created in the process of interpersonal interaction due to the initial definition of the situation by its participants, coordination of their intentions, adaptation to each other’s positions, organization of joint activities, turns out to be a factor determining the success of a particular interaction, its nature and prospects.

Interaction is a fundamental process that leads to the formation of a dyadic community. The main mechanisms ensuring the formation of an interpersonal space of interaction are mutual understanding, coordination, and agreement.

Basics of proper communication

The main problem of interpersonal relationships is a violation of communicative function. If a person does not know how to communicate correctly and is afraid to establish contacts with people, then any type of interpersonal relationships are unlikely to develop successfully.

Useful tips

There are several effective tips on how to learn to communicate with people:

1. Be interested in what the other person is saying. Learn to listen.
2. Watch your facial expressions. Smile more often.
3. Call your interlocutor by name more often. According to numerous psychological studies, the sound of one's own name is one of the most pleasant to the human ear.
4. Get rid of filler words. They make your speech vulgar and uncomfortable to hear.
5. Develop a culture of speech. When a person speaks correctly and beautifully, it is not only pleasant to listen to him, but also much more understandable. After all, the ability to clearly and clearly formulate your thoughts guarantees that the interlocutor will also understand them.

There are situations when, during communication, people cannot find the right words, do not know what to talk about and how to build a constructive dialogue. As a result, misunderstandings arise in relationships.

Communication mistakes

What communication mistakes should you try to avoid so that types of interpersonal relationships are not at risk of unfavorable development?

1. Watch your tone, facial expressions and gestures. Avoid an indifferent tone, a bored look, skeptical assessments - such manifestations discourage the desire to continue communication.
2. The language barrier. This is not just a problem of people speaking different languages. Also, a language barrier can arise between people with different levels of development, age characteristics and speech culture. For example, you won’t be able to talk with children the same way as with adults, if only because most of the words and terms that adults use in conversation may be unknown to children.
3. Manifestations of social phobia. It happens that a person, for inexplicable reasons, feels afraid of communicating with people. This is why awkward situations and pauses arise when trying to establish contact with the interlocutor. If you are faced with a similar problem, then you need to show inner willpower and resilience to work on improving your communication functions.

Every person is born and lives in society throughout his life. Complete isolation is completely impossible. There are options to trim and reduce the types of interpersonal relationships, leaving only the most necessary areas of social connection. But without successful construction of social communication connections, harmonious personal growth and development is impossible.

Main types of interpersonal communication

The relationships that are experienced and realized by individuals at the time of interpersonal relationships, depending on the degree of interest, are based on various emotional states. The psychological characteristics of the interlocutors and their level of intelligence are also important for communication.

Articles on the topic

• How to recognize a liar and manipulator during communication 10/26/2021
• Current techniques for working with the subconscious 09.20.2021
• The most important areas of education 08/28/2021
• The primary goal of raising children in modern society 05/20/2021

The interpersonal type of communication is divided into the following types:

1. Formal. Occurs without taking into account the psychological and other characteristics of the interlocutors. Masks of compassion, politeness, severity or indifference allow you to veil true emotions and relationships. With frequent contacts, using a standard set of gestures and phrases, you can protect yourself from emotional overload.

2. Primitive. With this method of communication, the interlocutor is assessed. He is recognized as a necessary or interfering subject. If they believe that he will be needed, then they actively contact him, otherwise communication is rudely interrupted. When you get what you want, interest in such a person completely disappears and its absence is not hidden.

3. Functional-role. This type of communication is characterized by content regulations. The personality of the interlocutor is less important than his social role. An example of interpersonal communication of this type can be the following partners: teacher and student, boss and employee, public transport driver and passenger.

4. Business. In this type of communication, the interlocutors take into account each other’s character, age, and mood. Moreover, the interests of the case always prevail, personal differences recede into the background. The usual goal of business negotiations or communication is to reach some kind of agreement.

5. Manipulative. Communication for the purpose of obtaining benefits. In this case, such techniques as deception, flattery, intimidation, blackmail and others are used.

6. Social communication. Fully complies with the norms accepted in secular society. The interlocutors behave extremely diplomatically. But at the same time, behind a mask of politeness they hide their thoughts.

7. Spiritual. Allows for conversation on any topic. This is a type of communication between close people who understand the feelings and thoughts of the interlocutor by the intonation of their voice or facial expression.

Interpersonal communication is a special type of human activity during which ideas, feelings and emotions are exchanged and a system of relationships begins to develop.

Interpersonal communication, its psychology

The procedure in which individuals interact for the purpose of mutual knowledge, the development of relationships, as a result of which mutual influences on the behavior and views of the participants in such connections are manifested, is regarded as the psychology of interpersonal communication.

After all, communications (communication) turn out to be one of the key categories of psychology and are considered by it on equal terms with such categories as:

• Behavior
• Thinking
• Personality
• Relationship

What is meant by communication in psychology? First of all, human relations, implying various configurations of the general activities of individuals. Most often, communication and activity are recognized as different aspects of social human existence, or communication is understood as a separate element of a particular activity, considered in turn as a condition for communication. When communicating, people exchange their views, emerging ideas, and feelings.

The difficulties of interpersonal communication and interaction are manifested through the emergence of motivational and operational difficulties that correlate with the interactive and communicative aspects of communication. Characteristic signs are a lack of desire to comprehend the personality characteristics of the interlocutor, his interests and internal state. As a consequence, there are manifestations of communication problems with the desire to benefit from communication with the interlocutor through his deception, intimidation, or demonstrating extreme concern for him.

Lecture 3. Psychology of interpersonal interaction

Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Unity of communication with activity. Types of communication. Psychological features of business communication. Structure of interpersonal communication The communicative side of communication. Communication barriers. The interactive side of communication. The perceptual side of communication. Mechanisms of social perception.

Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon.

Man is a social being, his life and development is impossible without communication and interaction with people. Communication is a process of interaction between people, during which interpersonal relationships arise, manifest and are formed. Communication is a decisive condition for the development of each person as an individual.

In the psychological dictionary, communication is considered as a complex, multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, people’s perception and understanding of each other.

.

In Russian psychology, one of the methodological principles in the study of communication is the idea of ​​the unity of communication and activity. On the one hand, activity acts as a part, a side of communication, on the other hand, communication is a side of activity. But communication and activity form an inextricable unity in all cases.

Communication functions.

The functions of communication are diverse, so there are different bases for their classification. In domestic social psychology, it is customary to distinguish three interconnected sides in communication: communicative, interactive and perceptual.

There are three functions of communication: information and communication; regulatory-communicative, affective-communicative (B.L. Lomov).

Types of communication.

1. «Contact masks"

- formal communication, when there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality characteristics of the interlocutor, the usual masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, modesty, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow one to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor .

2. Primitive communication

when they evaluate another person as a necessary or interfering object: if necessary, they actively come into contact, if it interferes, they will push away or aggressive, rude remarks will follow.

3. Formal-role communication

, when both the content and means of communication are regulated and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, they make do with knowledge of his social role.

4. Business conversation

, when the personality, character, age, and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences.

5. Spiritual, personal communication

is concentrated mainly around psychological problems of an internal nature, those interests and needs that deeply and intimately affect a person’s personality.

6. Manipulative communication

is aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deception, demonstration of kindness, etc.) depending on the personality characteristics of the interlocutor.

7. Social communication.

Psychological features of business communication

Business communication is a process of verbal interaction between people in which activities, information and experience are exchanged in order to achieve a certain result. Business communication is included in productive activities and is aimed at improving the quality and results of these activities. It arises in situations of joint work or study and does not affect the inner world of the participants in communication; its content is processes and issues related to production.

The following forms of business communication are distinguished: business conversation, business meeting, press conference, business negotiations, presentation, business techniques.

In business situations, it is important not only to understand the needs, motives, and attitudes of a business partner, but also to predict his mental reactions, his behavior, and the dynamics of the development of the business situation. In business relations, universal ethical principles of business communication, value orientations and attitudes, and professionally oriented business etiquette are implemented.

The structure of interpersonal communication. The communicative side of communication.

There are three interconnected sides in communication:

— communication side

communication consists of the exchange of information between people;

— interactive side

is to organize interaction between people;

— perceptual side

communication includes the process of communication partners perceiving each other and establishing mutual understanding on this basis.

In communication as a communicative process, there is an active exchange of information between people, as a result of which not just mutual information is achieved, but an understanding of the information, and a common meaning is developed.

The means of non-verbal communication are gestures, facial expressions, intonation, pauses, pantomime, laughter, tears, etc., which form a sign system that complements and enhances, and sometimes replaces, the means of verbal communication.

The correspondence of the means of nonverbal communication used to the goals and content of verbal transmission of information is one of the elements of the culture of communication.

Communication barriers

A communication barrier is a psychological obstacle that arises in the way of transmitting adequate information. In modern social psychology, different types of communication barriers are distinguished. The most common are the following: barriers of misunderstanding

(phonetic, semantic, stylistic, logical, etc.);
barriers of socio-cultural differences
(social, political, religious, professional, etc.);
relationship barriers
(occur when negative feelings and emotions interfere with interaction).

An important feature of interpersonal communication is the possibility of the emergence of phenomena of interpersonal influence

, which, in particular, include: suggestion, infection, persuasion. Influence in interpersonal communication is aimed at satisfying one's motives and needs with the help of other people or through them.

The interactive side of communication.

In the process of interaction, everyone strives to focus on their own goals and the goals of their partner. Depending on the degree to which these goals are taken into account in the interaction, the following behavioral strategies are distinguished:

1. Cooperation

implying the maximum achievement by the participants of interaction of their goals.

2. Opposition (rivalry

), which involves focusing only on one’s own goals without taking into account the goals of the partner. Competition and emulation are types of rivalry.

3.Compromise

involving partial, intermediate achievement of partners’ goals for the sake of maintaining conditional equality and preserving relationships.

4. Compliance

involves sacrificing one’s own needs to achieve the partner’s goals;

5. Avoidance

(evasion), which involves avoiding contact, giving up the desire to achieve one’s goals in order to exclude the gain of another.

A unique approach to the structural description of interaction is presented in transactional analysis

, developed by the American psychiatrist E. Bern. A transaction is a unit of communication, an action (action) aimed at another person. Bern's concept was created based on the need to provide psychological assistance to people with communication problems. This is a direction that involves regulating the actions of participants in interaction by regulating their positions, also taking into account the nature of situations and the style of interaction. These positions are not associated with the corresponding social role: this is a purely psychological description of a certain strategy in interaction (the “child” position can be defined as the “I Want” position, the “parent” position as “Need”, the “adult” position - the combination of “I Want” and "Necessary"). Interaction is effective when transactions are “complementary” in nature, i.e. match up.

Each of the states of the “I” performs certain functions and, as a result, is vital. For optimal functioning, for effective interaction with others, from the point of view of transactional analysis, all three states of the “I” must be harmoniously represented in the individual, depending on the communication situation.

Each of the communicating occupies one of three positions in communication. Transactions come from a certain state of “I” of one communication partner and are directed to a certain state of “I” of the other partner. Some transactions lead to optimal interaction, others to conflict.

The perceptual side of communication.

The process of perception by one person of another acts as an obligatory component of communication and constitutes what is called perception.

In social psychology, the term “social perception” means people’s perception, understanding and evaluation of other people and groups.

Identify mechanisms of social perception

- the ways in which people interpret, understand and evaluate another person. The most common mechanisms are the following: empathy, attraction, causal attribution, identification, social reflection.

Empathy

– comprehension of the emotional state of another person, understanding his emotions, feelings and experiences. Empathy as the ability to understand the emotional state of another person develops throughout life and may be more pronounced in older people. Any professional activity in the “person-to-person” sphere requires the development of this perception mechanism.

Attraction

- a special form of perception and cognition of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling towards him. Attraction as a mechanism of social perception is usually considered in three aspects:

-the process of forming the attractiveness of another person;

— the result of this process;

- quality of relationships.

The mechanism of causal attribution

associated with attributing reasons for behavior to a person.
Attributing certain reasons for behavior to another, the observer does this either on the basis of the similarity of his behavior with some familiar person or known image of a person, or on the basis of an analysis of his own motives assumed in a similar situation. By perceiving and interpreting the world around us and other people, a person also perceives and interprets himself, his own actions and motivations. The process and result of a person's self-perception in a social context is called social reflection
.

Social reflection as a mechanism of social perception means the subject’s understanding of his own individual characteristics and how they manifest themselves in external behavior; awareness of how he is perceived by his communication partner.

A person’s perception also depends on his ability to put himself in the place of another, to identify himself with him. The process and result of such identification is called identification

Identification is similar to empathy, but empathy can be considered as an emotional identification of the subject of observation, which is possible on the basis of past or present experience of similar experiences.

In the process of perception, distortions of the perceived image are possible, which are caused not only by the subjectivity of interpretation, but also by some socio-psychological effects of perception

.
From this point of view, distortions are objective in nature and require certain efforts of the perceiver’s personality to overcome them. The most significant information about a person is the first and the last ( primacy and recency effect
). At the same time, if we know a person for a long time, then the latest information about him will be the most significant. If the person is unfamiliar to us or we know him very poorly, then the most significant is the first information received.

In addition, it has a great effect

positive or negative
halo
. Usually this effect occurs in relation to a person about whom a general evaluative idea is formed due to a lack of information.

Stereotyping

also considered as one of the effects of interpersonal perception.
A stereotype
is some stable image of a phenomenon or person. Very often, a stereotype arises regarding a person’s group affiliation, for example, his belonging to a certain profession. Then the pronounced professional traits of representatives of this profession encountered in the past are considered as traits inherent in every representative of this profession.

People's perceptions and understanding are influenced by attitudes

. An attitude is a person’s unconscious readiness to perceive and evaluate certain people in a certain habitual way and to react in a certain, pre-formed way without a full analysis of a specific situation.

Formation of interpersonal relationships

The development of interpersonal relationships is possible only under one condition - if the individual has the ability to establish contacts with people and find a common language with them. This is facilitated by ease and contact, trust and understanding, emotional attraction and acceptance, as well as the absence of a rigid program of manipulation and self-interest.

Interpersonal relationships ideally strive for trust, this includes the expectation of support and confidence that the partner will not betray or use the situation for harm.

In the process of trusting interpersonal communication, relationships deepen and psychological distance decreases. However, trust often develops into gullibility, which is expressed in the fact that an individual unreasonably believes a person’s word, despite pitfalls and disappointments.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Krysko V.G. Social psychology: Course of lectures – 3rd ed. – M.: Omega-L, 2006. – 352 p.; table, ill. - (Higher School Library.).

2. Lavrinenko V.N. Psychology and ethics of business communication: Textbook for universities. – 4th ed. reworked and additional – M.: UNITY-DANA, 2005. – 415 p.

3. Morozov A.V. Business psychology: Course of lectures. – St. Petersburg: Publishing house SOYUZ, 2000 – 576 p.

4. Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology of business communication and management. Textbook. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2005. - 416 p.

5. Shelamova G.M. Business culture and psychology of communication: A textbook for beginners. prof. education. — 7th ed., erased. - M.: Publishing House, 2007. - 160 p.

Levels of interpersonal relationships

Definition 4

The level of interpersonal relationships is the depth of a person’s involvement in interaction with other people (person).

The following levels of interpersonal relationships are distinguished:

1. The perceptual level of interpersonal relationships is the level of understanding and perception by partners of each other, awareness of individual personality, character traits, behavior and characteristics (gender, racial, external, national, etc.). At this level, interpersonal relationships between people are just emerging and developing. People recognize each other and begin to experience the first emotional reaction.
2. Mutual attraction or rejection is the level at which partners experience first feelings for each other (liking, antipathy, hostility, etc.). That is, there is a deeper acquaintance with the person.
3. The interactive level is a level characterized by the presence of emotional reactions that require constant feeding through interaction between people. So, if people feel sympathy for each other, then they strive to interact, collaborate, and communicate as much as possible. If, on the contrary, they experience negative feelings towards each other, then they try to avoid contact so as not to lead the situation to conflict.

Almost all types of interpersonal relationships go through all three levels of development. After reaching the third level, interpersonal relationships stop developing, as they have reached their maximum. In the future, the relationship may remain at the final stage, that is, people will experience established feelings for each other and their interpersonal relationships will be relatively “smooth.” It may also be that the relationship will change, based on a decline in emotionality and a decrease in the intensity of feelings for the partner. For example, once ardent love and passion can eventually turn into a habit or attachment, and strong hatred into ordinary hostility.

Often, people strive to maintain their relationships at a high level, for this purpose they resort to various tricks. This does not always bring the expected result; the situation can turn out completely opposite. For example, in order to revive the previous feeling of love, one of the partners may accuse the other of being “cold,” which as a result does not lead to a revival of love and passion, but, on the contrary, to the emergence of a conflict.

The relationship between the level of interpersonal interaction of the individual and its development

One of the most important characteristics of an individual’s interpersonal interaction is the level of its development of socio-psychological perception and reflection. By socio-psychological perception we understand the process of adequate perception, awareness and experience by a person of the relationships between people with whom he interacts. Social-psychological reflection is understood as the process of a person reflecting his own “I,” understanding, and experiencing his relationships with other people. In socio-psychological perception and reflection, a person develops personal perception and reflection - mental formations (personal qualities) that allow him to understand the relationships between people and predict the development of his own relationships with people. In modern psychology it is known that sociometric status, the level of socio-psychological comfort, the presence of the first circle of desired communication, the motivation of interpersonal relationships, socio-psychological perception and reflection are the most important characteristics of personality development and are inextricably linked with all components of the personality structure. However, another significant characteristic of interpersonal interaction is not always taken into account, which is defined as its level of development. Most often, in Russian psychology the levels of communication were considered in this context. We agree that at lower levels (primitive, manipulative, business), the activity of the individual is manifested to a greater extent in behavior, namely in communication. At higher levels (intimate-personal, spiritual), the internal activity of the individual (thoughts, experiences, relationships) plays a huge role.

Interpersonal interaction consists of contacts. Any contact between a person and another person has its own structure and, as a rule, includes the following five phases: motivation, entering into contact, action, leaving contact, analysis. The expanded interaction proceeds according to the following scheme:

Motivation

Getting in touch

Action

Leaving contact

Analysis

The first phase of contact represents an awareness of the purpose and motives of communication, relationships with a specific person, as well as hypothetical constructions in the internal plan of possible options for carrying out contact. At this stage of contact, a person can think through advantageous positions for achieving communication goals. So, for example, if a person simply needs to satisfy the emotional need for communication, then he can choose the “nearby” position (according to E. Berne “adult-adult”). If you want to subjugate your interlocutor, the position “from above” is chosen (according to E. Berne “adult - child”), if it is necessary to evoke sympathy, they prefer the position “from below” (according to E. Berne “child-adult”).

The second phase - “making contact” - includes clarification of the specific communication situation on the spot, perception of the interlocutor, his posture, facial expression, disposition to communicate, distance to the interlocutor. At this stage, the charm of the interlocutor is of great importance for the further development of communication. There are different natures of charm. You can observe the “charm of youth”, which young people themselves do not even think about. The sparkle of the eyes, the spontaneity of movements, open postures - these reactions can often trigger the desire to communicate. There is the charm of spectacular appearance, the charm of humor, the charm of femininity and masculine charm, the charm of intelligence and the charm of unstoppable strength. Charm depends not only on natural data, but can be achieved by special psychological techniques and methods. In psychology, there is a term “fascination”, which translates as “bewitchment”. Among the methods of fascination one can single out a special captivating look (stern but kind), a special voice rich in timbre, a special rhythm of speech (at the right moments it can calm or excite), a special mindset that allows you to build verbal structures in accordance with the situation and expediently use pauses. At this phase of communication, mutual assessment of the interlocutors occurs, the current role is grasped, and readiness for direct action of communication is formed.

The third phase “action” involves informing the interlocutor by verbal and non-verbal means, establishing feedback, receiving information from the interlocutor and further exchange of information, emotions, states. At this stage, special means and techniques are important to support communication. If communication is interrupted, the interlocutors return to the second, and sometimes to the first phase of communication. Repeatedly returning one of the interlocutors to the first phase can destroy his motivation to communicate.

The fourth phase, “exiting contact,” includes verbal and nonverbal means that prepare communication partners for its completion. These may be certain movements (looking at the clock or at strangers), inadequate reactions to contacts (extra-long pauses, a skeptical smile, facial expressions and gestures of displeasure and a desire to end communication), summing up the conversation, moving the continuation of the conversation to a more convenient place and to more convenient time.

The fifth phase, “contact analysis,” involves an analysis of communication, in which each interlocutor internally sums up the results of communication, compares the initial goals of communication with its results, realizes his advantages in the technique and content of communication, and critically evaluates mistakes in the choice of positions and means of communication. In this phase of communication, it is necessary to remove all negative emotions (irritability, aggression, anger, envy, etc.) associated with possible dissatisfaction with communication and psychologically prepare yourself for new contacts with different people.

In order to develop interpersonal interaction with people, it is necessary to objectively analyze the level of one’s own communication, communication of employees, clients, and for such an analysis knowledge of the structure of contact and its phases is required.

Interpersonal interaction has the following levels: primitive, manipulative, business level, “entertainment” level, “game” level, intimate-personal level, spiritual level.

We characterize the interaction of different levels. At the first three levels, it is possible to record behavioral acts, as a rule, acts that manifest themselves in the external component of interaction - communication. Subsequent levels of interaction involve greater inclusion of characteristics of communication, joint activities and interpersonal relationships.

The primitive level is characterized by the fact that in communication at this level it is difficult to identify the means of all phases with the exception of the third - “action”. A person unconsciously or consciously does not set himself the goal of interaction, communication is determined by unconscious motives (attraction, instincts, unconscious needs), a person does not look for appropriate means to establish contact with an interlocutor, does not predict communication, but immediately acts. After the action, he does not try to get out of contact and does not subject his act of behavior to analysis. “Mask communication” can also be attributed to the primitive level, in which a person addresses another person and receives a response to his appeal almost mechanically, without even changing his facial expression, without establishing visual contact.

The manipulative level of interaction involves communication, in which, as a rule, one can detect acts of two phases: the first - “incitement to contact” and the third phase - “action”. When manipulating, a person knows what he wants, he is well aware of the motive for interaction. With this level of interaction, its egoistic orientation is most often traced and therefore acts related to the second phase of “making contact” are ignored, and acts of “action” are immediately implemented: informing the interlocutor or receiving information, conveying one’s mood, etc. At this level of communication there is no need for acts of the fourth and fifth phases.

Business level of interaction. This level is characterized by the presence of acts of three phases: the first, third and fifth. Business communication is distinguished by conscious goals and motives; as a rule, the results of communication are predicted in advance, that is, the “incentive to communicate” phase is clearly distinguished. In business communication, the acts of the “getting into contact” and “leaving contact” phases are not detected, just as the person who communicates does not consider it necessary to know the state of the interlocutor, his experiences - the main thing for him is to achieve his own goals in interaction. Acts of the third phase of “action” are determined by joint activities and in their content differ in their focus on solving the assigned tasks. The results of business communication, as a rule, are subject to careful analysis, but the means and the process of communication itself fall out of the analysis. Business people often adhere to this level of communication and cannot understand that its effectiveness is not high, only because it is not detailed and complete in structure.

The “entertainment” interaction represents a fairly high level of interaction, since it contains acts of all five phases. The word “entertainment” in the name of this level is borrowed from the works of E. Berne [] and means that it figuratively resembles, for example, the entertainment of people in a situation of free behavior. Motives at the “entertainment” level of interaction can be weakly conscious or conscious. For example, a person who is going to visit knows the motives for his participation, assumes the composition of the company, the approximate content of communication, and possible non-verbal means of communication between individual guests and invitees (clothing, makeup, jewelry, emotional states, etc.). In such interaction, we can distinguish the acts of the “coming into contact” phase. For example, guests greet the hosts and everyone present in a special way, as a rule, with a smile, a welcoming look and gestures, handshakes, and with individual interlocutors and favorable physical contacts: symbolic hugs, kisses, touching, patting, presenting flowers, souvenirs, gifts, etc. P. The acts of the “action” phase are also distinguished by their deployment and openness. The acts of the “leaving contact” phase are also well expressed. People who complete communication say goodbye warmly, as in the acts of the second phase, communication is accompanied by a rich arsenal of non-verbal means, they make appointments, exchange phone numbers, promises, etc. A person who has completed communication at this level returns in his thoughts more than once to what happened, in fact, as a rule, he analyzes all his acts. It should be noted that all acts of “entertainment”, and especially those from the “action” phase, are egoistically directed. The entire process and content of this level of interaction is aimed at obtaining personal satisfaction, and not only satisfying one’s needs for communication, but self-affirmation, self-realization, and sometimes solving personal business issues.

The “game” level represents a complete communication developed in all phases, as well as at the “entertainment” level. The main difference between the “game” is that it is focused not on satisfying the egoistic needs of the individual, but on the process of communication itself. All acts, starting from the first phase of interaction, are aimed at how to organize, develop, maintain and continue communication. First, a person, in accordance with conscious motives, sets a goal, formulates for himself the tasks that need to be solved in communication, thinks through such a communication technique so that the interaction does not stop until the tasks are solved. The acts of the “making contact” phase involve a primary assessment of the psychological state of the interlocutor, his posture, muscle stiffness, openness to communication, and his reactions to establishing contact with the interlocutor using his gaze. Then you choose your own pose, congruent with the pose of the interlocutor, mentally establish a connection, as it were, as a “thread” between your eyes and the eyes of the interlocutor, other technical methods of establishing contact are used, and then the conversation just begins on a topic that is significant for the interlocutor, the dominant one in which can be listening to him , and, as a rule, expressing complete agreement with the interlocutor through non-verbal means. After the interlocutor has developed trust, the posture has become more open, muscle tension has been relieved, the gaze becomes open, it is necessary to begin the acts of the “action” phase, to lead the interlocutor to resolve issues that are determined by the purpose of communication. In interaction at the “game” level, even at this stage it is necessary to constantly monitor the interlocutor’s expression of interest in communication and support it in every possible way. In the fourth phase, “leaving contact,” the main tasks are to maintain established trusting relationships in communication, create the need for continued contacts and their prospects, and create moral satisfaction in the interlocutor from the communication process. Analysis of such communication is favorable for a business person in that at this level, as a rule, the results are most effective, the person himself experiences emotional satisfaction from the communication process, and seeks more advanced means and techniques of communication with new business partners.

The intimate-personal level of interaction is an expanded process, like “communication-game,” with the obligatory presence of acts of all the phases noted above and is distinguished by a pronounced focus on the interlocutor, on satisfying all his expressed needs. The most difficult thing at this level is to determine the leading needs of the interlocutor. That is why the most common reason that this level of interaction is not achieved is the attribution of one’s own motives for communication to one’s interlocutor, and then communication is nothing more than manipulation.

The spiritual level of interaction differs from all previously described levels of communication in that a person does not plan, does not think through the tasks of communication, its means and techniques, does not seek to control other people, and all his acts are presented in a detailed form within the process itself. The spiritual level of interaction is determined by the level of personal development, at which harmoniously, as in nature, the principles of truth, beauty, goodness and abundance prevail in a person’s thoughts, feelings, and actions. At this level of communication, a person does not allow selfish motives in relation to other people in his thoughts; when communicating with an interlocutor, he sees him as kind and beautiful, wishes him well-being and happiness, and knows how to unselfishly forgive the bad manners and moral blindness of his interlocutor. In communication there is no desire to own other people; the need to provide help to people in need is expressed. The spiritual level of interaction is optimal for personal development. The presented theoretical provisions show that interaction, like any process, develops, and its development is determined not only by the individual’s natural abilities to communicate and his social environment, but also by the conscious activity of the individual himself, his desires, knowledge, and skills.

Types of relationships in society: social and interpersonal

In numerous articles on Internet sites, interpersonal relationships usually mean any relationship between people, including professional ones. However, recognized experts in the field of social psychology, both domestic (G. M. Andreeva, V. N. Druzhinin, N. N. Obozov, E. V. Andrienko, etc.) and foreign (T. Shibutani, J. Moreno , E. Bern, etc.) take a different position. It seems more correct to me. The essence of this point of view is as follows.

The entire variety of human relationships can be divided into two large groups: social and interpersonal, and they are fundamentally different from each other.

Social relations

They are of a role nature and develop between social roles, and not between specific individuals endowed with individual characteristics and characteristics of the emotional sphere. A role is a functional unit of society, and it is impersonal. That is, the totality of behavioral patterns of the role is in no way connected with a specific person. A person tries on a role like a suit. For example, in a work team there may be the following roles: director, deputy director, sales manager, secretary, system administrator, etc. And the relationships between them are determined by job responsibilities and stereotypes of role behavior.

The family also has its own roles: mother, father, husband, wife, daughter, son, brother, etc. Each role has its own socially defined pattern of behavior, its own functions, rights and responsibilities. They are related to the goals and objectives of a social group, and not to the personal qualities of its individual members.

Therefore, social relations are also not associated with individuals as unique and unrepeatable individuals, because the content of a social role does not change depending on who plays this role. Unless a bright personality colors the role, but does not change it.

Interpersonal relationships

A different matter is the interpersonal relationships that develop between individuals, which therefore differ in a number of features:

• They are based on feelings and emotional assessments by partners of each other.
• Personalities in them appear as unique individuals with their own unique characteristics of character and emotional sphere.
• Interpersonal relationships are formed gradually in the process of interaction between people.
• They are dynamic and can change over time, even to completely opposite ones.

A person can simultaneously act as a subject of both role and interpersonal relationships, and with the same partners. This makes the system of social interactions unusually complex and interesting.

Age-related characteristics of interpersonal interaction in adolescents

Adolescence is one of the crisis stages in the formation of a person’s personality. It is characterized by a number of specific features. This is the age of cardinal transformations in the sphere of consciousness, activity and systems of relationships.

The problem of interpersonal interaction belongs to one of the main areas of a teenager’s life. Interpersonal interaction plays an important role in the formation of a teenager’s personality. Every age period is important for the socialization of an individual. And yet adolescence occupies a special place in pedagogy and psychology. Adolescence is the most complex and difficult of all ages, representing a period of personality formation. The main content of adolescence is the transition from childhood to adulthood. A qualitative restructuring of all aspects of development occurs, new formations arise and form, the foundations of conscious behavior are laid, and social attitudes are formed. This transformation process determines all the main personality traits of adolescent children. The formation of a future personality depends on how interpersonal interaction between adolescents develops. The relevance increases sharply at this stage of the development of society, when there is a sharp change in social relations, the nature of personal interactions, moral norms, values, etc. Interpersonal interaction is always determined by the system of social relations in which it is included, but since it also constantly acts as an interindividual connection and an individual form of activity, in the structure and dynamics of communication it is impossible to separate the personal from the social, to draw a sharp line between them. At any level and with any complexity of individual behavior, there is an interdependence between: a) information about people and interpersonal relationships; b) communication and self-regulation of human actions in the process of communication; c) transformation of the inner world of the individual himself. Interpersonal interaction becomes the leading, developing aspect of adolescence.

There is a position according to which the status of a teenager in the system of personal relationships is a serious prerequisite for the formation of his personality. This is due to the fact that the main socializing factor in adolescence is intimate and personal relationships with peers. At this age, the need for communication is also manifested in a phenomenon repeatedly noted by many researchers - an active search for a close friend.

Social pedagogy distinguishes two types of interpersonal interaction among adolescents: functional-role and emotional-interpersonal [31, p. 73].

Functional-role interaction occurs in the spheres of cognition, objective-practical and spiritual-practical activity, organized games, sports and is aimed at serving them. Emotional-interpersonal interaction occurs in the sphere of communication and is aimed at satisfying the needs of subjects for emotional contact.

Feldshtein D.I. identifies three forms of interpersonal interaction in adolescents: [53, p. 81].

Intimate-personal interaction is interaction based on personal sympathies - “I” and “you”. The content of such communication is the complicity of the interlocutors in each other’s problems. Intimate and personal communication occurs when partners have common values, and complicity is ensured by understanding each other’s thoughts, feelings and intentions, and empathy. The highest forms of intimate and personal communication are friendship and love.

Social communication

It includes the interaction of boys and girls in a group: with classmates and fellow students. Unlike communication based on interests, social contacts are not chosen. Being in a team, you have to interact with completely different people, and this skill will be significantly useful in the future. A mature and accomplished person should be able to communicate effectively with different people and take something useful out of every meeting.

Conflicts and misunderstandings among teenagers due to differences in interests are common. In such situations, hostility and rejection develop very quickly. Teenagers prefer to actively express their position and strive to express themselves as soon as possible.

Features and types of interpersonal relationships

Features of interpersonal relationships:

1. Interpersonal relationships are based on emotional and sensory assessments of partners.
2. The personality of each participant in interpersonal relationships acts as a separate and unique unit.
3. The formation of interpersonal relationships manifests itself gradually during the interaction of people.
4. Interpersonal relationships are dynamic and change throughout their existence. The change in the nature of interpersonal relationships can be dramatic “from positive to negative.”

Interpersonal relationships are usually divided into two main groups: negative and positive (positive).

Definition 2

Positive (positive) interpersonal relationships are relationships that are based on mutual trust and respect.

This group of interpersonal relationships includes:

• sympathy;
• attractiveness;
• companionship;
• mutual interest;
• friendship;
• mutual affection;
• Love.

The main feature of these interpersonal relationships is that at the beginning of their development they are not always based on common interests and goals; they are often completely opposite to mutual sympathy. That is, people begin to communicate with each other during work or educational activities. Gradually sympathy appears, people like to communicate with each other, common interests are revealed.

Definition 3

Negative (negative) interpersonal relationships are relationships that are based on rejection of certain personal qualities of a person, characteristics of his character or behavior.

Quite often, hostility can be unfounded, that is, a person is not able to explain why he has negative feelings towards another. The main reasons for these feelings are: various contradictions that arose during communication.

This group of interpersonal relationships includes:

• antipathy;
• hostility;
• mistrust;
• aggression;
• hatred;
• feeling of revenge.

Currently, in practical psychology they have begun to distinguish a third group of interpersonal relationships - neutral. The identification of this group causes a lot of controversy among researchers in the field of psychology. This is due to the fact that if a person does not experience any feelings towards another person, then there can be no talk of a relationship.

Types of human interaction. Interpersonal interaction. Intergroup interaction

In interaction, a person’s attitude towards another person as a subject who has his own world is realized. The interaction of a person with a person in society is also the interaction of their inner worlds, the exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, the influence on goals and needs, the impact on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state.

Interaction, moreover, can be represented as the systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate reaction on the part of other people. Joint life and activity, unlike individual life, at the same time has stricter restrictions on any manifestations of activity or passivity of individuals. This forces people to build and coordinate the images of “I—He,” “We—They,” and to coordinate efforts between them. In the course of real interaction, a person’s adequate ideas about himself, other people, and their groups are also formed. The interaction of people is a leading factor in the regulation of their self-esteem and behavior in society.

Interpersonal interaction is accidental or intentional, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts between individuals, changes in their behavior, activities, attitudes and attitudes.

The main features of such interaction are:

- the presence of a goal (object) external to the interacting individuals, the achievement of which requires mutual efforts,

— explicitness (availability) for observation from the outside and registration by other people,

- reflexive ambiguity - the dependence of its perception on the conditions of implementation and the assessments of its participants.

The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relationships in the time continuum goes through several stages (stages): acquaintance, friendship, companionship and friendly relations. The process of weakening interpersonal relationships has the same dynamics (the transition from friendly to comradely, friendly, and then the termination of the relationship). The duration of each stage depends on many factors and conditions.

The acquaintance process is carried out depending on the sociocultural and professional norms of the society to which future communication partners belong, as well as on their specific activities and their corresponding social roles.

Friendly relationships shape readiness/unreadiness for further development of interpersonal relationships. If the partners have a positive attitude, then this is a favorable prerequisite for further communication.

Companionship allows you to strengthen interpersonal contact. Here there is a convergence of views and support for each other (at this stage such concepts as “act in a comradely manner”, “comrade in arms”, etc.) are used. Interpersonal relationships at this stage are characterized by stability and a certain mutual trust. Numerous popular publications on optimizing interpersonal relationships provide recommendations on the use of a variety of techniques to induce goodwill and sympathy among communication partners.

Friendly relationships always have a common subject content - a community of interests, goals of activity, in the name of which friends unite (unite) and at the same time presuppose mutual affection.

Despite the similarity of views and the provision of emotional and activity support to each other, certain disagreements may exist between friends. We can distinguish utilitarian (instrumental-business, practically effective) and emotional-expressive (emotional-confessional) friendship. Friendly relationships manifest themselves in various forms: from interpersonal sympathy to a mutual need for communication. Such relationships can develop both in a formal and informal setting. Friendly relationships, compared to companionship, are characterized by greater depth and trust (Kohn, 1987). Friends openly discuss with each other many aspects of their lives, including the personal characteristics of those communicating and mutual acquaintances. An important characteristic of friendships is trust.

The conditions for the development of interpersonal relationships also influence their breadth and depth and largely determine their dynamics. In particular, in urban conditions, compared to rural areas, there is a higher pace of life, frequent changes of places of work and residence, and a high level of public control. The result is a greater number of interpersonal contacts, their short duration and the manifestation of functional-role communication. Therefore, maintaining close interpersonal relationships in the city is associated with a significant loss of personal time, mental overload, material resources, etc. Specific situations in which people communicate are important in the formation of interpersonal relationships. First of all, this is due to the types of joint activities during which interpersonal contacts are established (study, work, leisure), the nature of the situation (usual or extreme), the ethnic environment (mono- or polyethnic), material resources, etc. It is well known that that interpersonal relationships develop quickly in certain places (for example, in a hospital, train, etc.). This phenomenon is apparently due to strong dependence on external factors, short-term joint life activities and spatial proximity. The importance of the time factor in interpersonal relationships also depends on the specific sociocultural environment in which they develop (Ross, Nisbett, 1999).

A favorable prerequisite for the successful development of interpersonal relationships is the mutual awareness of partners about each other, which arises on the basis of interpersonal cognition. At the same time, much is determined by the individual characteristics of those communicating. These include gender, age, nationality, temperament, health, profession, experience in communicating with people and some personal characteristics.

The gender factor is manifested, in particular, in the fact that women usually have a much smaller social circle than men. In interpersonal communication, they experience a much greater need for self-disclosure, transferring personal information about themselves to others. More often they complain of loneliness. For women, characteristics that manifest themselves in interpersonal relationships are more significant, in contrast to men, for whom business qualities are more significant in life. In interpersonal relationships, the feminine style is aimed at reducing social distance and establishing psychological closeness with people. In friendships, women emphasize trust, emotional support and intimacy. Women's friendships are less stable. Women's friendships are characterized by closeness on a very wide range of issues; discussing the nuances of one's own relationships complicates them. Discrepancies, misunderstandings and emotionality undermine women's interpersonal relationships.

In men, interpersonal relationships are characterized by greater emotional restraint and objectivity. They open up more easily to strangers. Their style of interpersonal relationships is aimed at maintaining their image in the eyes of their communication partner, showing their achievements and aspirations. In friendships, men report a sense of camaraderie and mutual support (Cohn, 1987). With age, people gradually lose the openness characteristic of youth in interpersonal relationships. Their behavior is influenced by numerous sociocultural norms (especially professional and ethnic ones). The circle of contacts especially narrows after young people get married and have children in the family. Numerous interpersonal relationships are reduced and manifested in production and related areas. In middle age, as children grow older, interpersonal relationships expand again. In old age, old friendships play a special role.

Nationality determines sociability, the framework of behavior, and the rules for the formation of interpersonal relationships. In different ethnic communities, interpersonal connections are built taking into account a person’s position in society, gender and age status, membership in social groups, etc. (Triandis, 2006).

Some properties of temperament also influence the formation of interpersonal relationships. It has been experimentally established that choleric and sanguine people easily establish contacts, while phlegmatic and melancholic people have difficulty. Consolidating interpersonal relationships in pairs of “choleric with choleric,” “sanguine with sanguine,” and “choleric with sanguine” is difficult. Stable interpersonal connections are formed in pairs of “melancholic with phlegmatic”, “melancholic with sanguine” (Obozov, 1979).

External physical disabilities and chronic diseases, as a rule, negatively affect the “I-concept” and ultimately make it difficult to form interpersonal relationships. Temporary illnesses reduce sociability and the intensity of interpersonal contacts. Diseases of the thyroid gland, various neuroses, etc., associated with increased excitability, irritability, anxiety, mental instability, etc. - all this seems to “rock” interpersonal relationships and negatively affects them.

Interpersonal relationships are formed in all spheres of human life, but the most stable are most often those that appear in the process of joint work. In the course of performing functional duties, not only business contacts are consolidated, but also interpersonal relationships emerge and develop, which later acquire a multifaceted and deep character.

The experience of communicating with people contributes to the acquisition of stable skills and abilities in the development of interpersonal relationships based on social norms of regulation with representatives of different groups in society (Bobneva, 1978). Communication experience allows you to practically master and apply various norms of communication with different people and exercise targeted control over the manifestation of your emotions.

The influence of the self-esteem of each participant in communication on the development of interpersonal relationships is very interesting. Adequate self-esteem allows an individual to objectively assess his own characteristics and correlate them with the individual psychological qualities of a partner and with the situation, choose the appropriate level of interpersonal relationships and adjust it if necessary. Inflated self-esteem introduces elements of arrogance and condescension into interpersonal relationships. If communication partners are satisfied with this style of interpersonal relationships, then they will be quite stable, otherwise they will become tense. Low self-esteem of an individual forces her to adapt to the style of interpersonal relationships offered by her communication partner. At the same time, this can introduce a certain mental tension into interpersonal relationships due to the internal discomfort of the individual.

The research also identified personal qualities that hinder the development of interpersonal relationships. The first group included narcissism, arrogance, arrogance, complacency and vanity. The second group includes dogmatism and a constant tendency to disagree with a partner. The third group included duplicity and insincerity (Kunitsyna et al., 2001).

In connection with the analysis of the process of development of interpersonal relationships, it is advisable to consider two more important socio-psychological phenomena: attraction and interpersonal compatibility.

The concept of “attraction” is closely related to interpersonal attractiveness. Some researchers consider attraction as a process and at the same time a result of the attractiveness of one person to another; distinguish levels in it (sympathy, friendship, love) and connect it with the perceptual side of communication (Andreeva, 2000). Others believe that attraction is a kind of social attitude in which a positive emotional component predominates (Gozman, 1987). V. N. Kunitsyna understands attraction as the process of preference of some people over others, mutual attraction between people, mutual sympathy. In her opinion, attraction is determined by external factors (in particular, the spatial proximity of the place of residence or work of those communicating) and internal, actually interpersonal determinants (physical attractiveness, demonstrated style of behavior, factor of similarity between partners, expression of personal attitude towards the partner in the process of communication) (Kunitsyna and al., 2001).

“Harmonization”, “coherence”, “consolidation”, etc. are used as equivalent words. Interpersonal compatibility is based on the principles of similarity and complementarity. Its indicators are satisfaction with joint interaction and its result. The secondary result is the emergence of mutual sympathy. The opposite phenomenon of compatibility is incompatibility, and the feelings it evokes are antipathy. Interpersonal compatibility is considered as a state, process and result (Obozov, 1979). It develops within a spatiotemporal framework and specific conditions (normal, extreme, etc.), which influence its manifestation.

Interpersonal compatibility is the optimal combination of psychological characteristics of partners that help optimize their communication and activities.

Let us note once again that the formation of relationships, or more precisely, the process of actualization, implementation and development of social and interpersonal relations of interacting subjects is the most important component of communication. When perceiving another person as a representative of a certain social group, performing a certain social role, his communication partner involuntarily actualizes previously formed attitudes towards this group and this role. And depending on the content and nature of these relationships, business and interpersonal communication between these individuals, their cooperation or opposition, develops.

Psychology of communication

Contact between people is considered the most important moment in social life. Without it, many aspects of human existence simply would not have formed. That is why the study of this mental phenomenon, which has a complex stepwise structure, is considered relevant for all modern science.

The essence of interpersonal communication is the contact of a person with another person. With this, people satisfy their desire to exchange information. For example, when 2 people discuss a controversial situation or people in love whisper on a bench, that same contact occurs. Simply put, the existing problem or issue in the current case is resolved through communication.

Interpersonal communication is considered not only a necessary component of the joint activity of people, the implementation of which implies their cooperation, but also an integral condition for the normal functioning of their communities. In particular, consider a student group or construction crew. When comparing the style and manner of communication in these associations, both similarities and differences are revealed. The similarity is that communication appears to be a required condition for their existence in a given environment. By the way, the communication of the above-mentioned structures is influenced not only by the type of their activity, but also by other significant factors. Let’s say in a student group you need to know how everything is put together, check the collectivity of the group, as well as what dominates there, and other important aspects. The brigade, in turn, has completely different characteristics that differ from the students.

The specifics of interpersonal interaction everywhere depend on how everything is arranged inside, that is, how people react to each other, what their attitude is, how they understand each other, and so on. The communities to which an individual belongs develop standards of communication, set standards of behavior that the individual learns to follow every day when interacting with other people. These communities directly influence the development of his assessments, which shape his perception of other people, his attitude towards them and the manner of communicating with them. Moreover, the more effective the influence itself is, the more authoritative the community becomes in the eyes of the individual.

When in contact with other people, an individual can simultaneously act as both a subject and an object of communication. As a subject, he comprehends his own partner, determines his attitude towards him (interest or vice versa), influences him in order to solve some clear problem. Meanwhile, he himself appears as an object of knowledge for the one with whom he is talking. The partner addresses his emotions to him and tries to influence him.

Mechanics of Interpersonal Relationships

Psychology of Intergroup Relations

The complex psychology of the relationship between mother and adult son: tips

The essence and structure of interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is a process of interaction between at least two persons, aimed at mutual knowledge, establishment and development of relationships and involving mutual influence on the states, views, behavior and regulation of joint activities of the participants in this process. The ability to listen to an interlocutor is one of the most important communication skills. People who cannot listen face a lot of problems in interpersonal communication. The main goal of interpersonal communication is to achieve mutual understanding. Interpersonal communication is associated with the addition of knowledge (learning) and the associated change in people’s attitudes and behavior. Therefore, communication within the team must be controlled. The process of learning through communication involves a sender who conveys a message and a receiver who interprets and reacts to the message.

Structure: Types of interpersonal communication:

1) Imperative communication 2) Manipulation 3) monological communication 4) Dialogue communication.

Functions: 1) information-communicative 2) regulatory-communicative 3) affective-communicative

Levels of communication: 1. Macro level: an individual’s communication with other people is considered as the most important aspect of his lifestyle. . Communication here acts as a complex developing network of relationships between an individual and other people and social groups.

2. Mesa level (middle level): communication is considered as a changing set of purposeful, logically completed contacts

3. Micro level: here the main emphasis is on the analysis of elementary units of communication as related acts,

32. Types of interpersonal communication.

1) Imperative communication is an authoritarian, directive form of influencing a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior and internal attitudes, forcing him to take certain actions or decisions. In this case, the communication partner is considered as an object of influence and acts as a passive, “suffering” party. The peculiarity of the imperative is that the ultimate goal of communication - coercion of a partner - is not veiled. 2 ) Manipulation is a common form of interpersonal communication that involves influencing a communication partner in order to achieve one’s hidden intentions. Like the imperative, manipulative communication presupposes an objective perception of the communication partner, which is used by the manipulator to achieve his goals. 3) Dialogical . This option is based on the equality of interlocutors.

33. Interpersonal communication and role behavior. Interpersonal communication is interaction between several people, carried out using means of speech and non-verbal influence, as a result of which psychological contact and certain relationships arise between the participants in communication. The following types of interpersonal communication are distinguished: 1) formal (the usual “masks” of rigor, politeness, indifference, modesty, compassion, etc. are observed, as well as a standard set of gestures, phrases, facial expressions. This will hide real emotions and attitudes towards to your interlocutor.) 2 ) primitive . (With this type, the assessment of the other is carried out from the point of view of necessity or uselessness. If they are interested in a communication partner, then they actively contact him, otherwise they push him away or avoid him) 3 ) functional-role (which is based on the social status of the partners (subordinate -boss, student-teacher, buyer-seller). In this type, strict expectations and norms “work”) 4) business communication (implies that it is necessary to take into account the personality, age, character and mood of the interlocutor. The interests of business will always act on first plan.) 5) manipulative (aimed at getting benefits from the interlocutor. A partner who has similar goals will be able to use a variety of techniques - flattery, demonstration of kindness, intimidation, blackmail, deception) (Part 2 of the answer)

Every person plays some role in his life every day.
Some find it difficult to switch from the role of a strict boss to the role of a gentle and caring wife. Role behavior is a social function of a person.
It is behavior that is expected from an individual. It is determined by its status or position in the structure of interpersonal relationships. For example: the role of a boss at work, a father in the family, each person in life and in some area plays his own specific role. We play the role of students, etc. 34. Basic functions of interpersonal speech communication. The functions of communication as those roles and tasks that communication performs in the process of human social existence. The functions of communication are diverse, and there are various bases for their classification. 1) informational (consists in any type of exchange of information between interacting individuals.) 2) interactive ( consists in the regulation of behavior and the direct organization of joint activities of people in the process of their interaction) 3) perceptual (communication is impossible without a certain level of mutual understanding of the communicating subjects.) Communication has enormous importance in the formation of the human psyche, its development and the formation of reasonable, cultural behavior. Through communication with psychologically developed people, thanks to ample opportunities for learning, a person acquires all his higher cognitive abilities and qualities. Through active communication with developed personalities, he himself turns into individuals 35. Basic laws of interpersonal communication. There are 3 types of this communication option:

1. Imperative
   .
   This option is used by people who want to subjugate their interlocutor and force him to take specific actions. The peculiarities of such communication include the fact that coercion is not hidden, but is expressed in the form of orders, demands, threats, etc.
2. Manipulative
   .
   This option is similar to the first, but the main difference is that the influence on the interlocutor occurs through hidden methods. A person is not interested in the life or spiritual qualities of a partner if this has nothing to do with his manipulations.
3. Dialogical
   .
   This option is based on the equality of interlocutors.

The laws of communication psychology are very useful for people who want to be good communicators and successful in life. Learn to express your thoughts and emotions using the right words to achieve the results you want.

36. Methods of speech influence 1) Proof. To prove is to provide arguments confirming the correctness of a thesis. 2) Conviction. To convince is to instill in the interlocutor confidence that the truth has been proven, that the thesis has been established. Persuasion uses both logic and necessarily emotion, emotional pressure. 3) Persuasion. To persuade is mainly to emotionally encourage the interlocutor to abandon his point of view and accept ours - just like that, because we really want it. 4) Suggestion. Suggestion is based on strong psychological and emotional pressure, often on the authority of the interlocutor. Children are very suggestible in relation to adults, young girls and women are often suggestible in relation to rude and decisive men. 5) Coercion. To coerce means to force a person to do something against his will. 6) Verbal is influence using words. With verbal influence, it matters in what speech form you express your thought, in what words, in what sequence, how loudly, with what intonation, what you say to whom when. 7) Nonverbal influence is influence using non-verbal means that accompany our speech (gestures, facial expressions, behavior during speech, appearance of the speaker, distance to the interlocutor, etc.).

Question 37

Interpersonal communication is the most important category of psychological science, since communication is the interaction of people caused by the needs of their joint activities and carried out by sign means. In interpersonal communication, two types of communication are closely intertwined: verbal and nonverbal. Of the two types of interpersonal communication, nonverbal is the more ancient, while verbal communication is the most universal.

Nonverbal communication always occurs in person. It is usually accompanied by speech, but can be used separately from verbal means. Nonverbal cues are usually divided into three main groups: body language; paralinguistic means (degree of volume, distribution of pauses, features of facial expressions and gestures during communication); graphic (clothing and jewelry, etc.).

Body language , in turn, includes five components: gestures, facial expressions, body position, proxemics (location of people in space when communicating), tactile communication.

Gestures define communication through the iconic use of hands. Gestures as means of communication can be either generally accepted, i.e. have meanings assigned to them, and expressive, i.e. serve for greater expressiveness of speech. The use of gestures for a person becomes necessary when other means are unavailable or are of little expressiveness.

Facial expressions are the way we use facial expressions. First of all, we look into a person’s eyes - the mirror of the soul. The mouth is also an instrument of facial expression. We can observe subtle differences in a smile and gaze. The position of the facial details performs symbolic functions: raised eyebrows in surprise, anger, fear or greeting. The interlocutor's facial expressions can enhance, complement or refute the meaning of the phrase.

Studies have shown that when the lecturer's face is stationary or invisible, 1-15% of information is lost. Facial expressions carry more than 70% of the information, i.e. a person’s eyes, gaze, and face can say more than spoken words. Thus, it has been observed that a person tries to hide information (or lies) if his eyes meet his partner’s eyes for less than 1/3 of the conversation time.

Body position is a way of holding ourselves (our body). It is believed that a relaxed position indicates trust in the interlocutor. The nature of the body position is very important at the first meeting. So, during a job interview, it is recommended to sit straight, without slouching in a chair, to demonstrate interest, look into the eyes of the interlocutor, but not very persistently.

Proxemics is a way of using space. The distance between the interlocutors depends on the age and gender of the communicants, and on the degree of acquaintance between them.

The following distance zones in human contact are distinguished:

• intimate zone (15–45 cm), only close, well-known people are allowed into this zone; this zone is characterized by trust, a quiet voice in communication, tactile contact, touch. Research shows that violation of the intimate zone entails certain physiological changes in the body: increased heart rate, increased adrenaline secretion, rush of blood to the head, etc. Premature invasion of the intimate zone during communication is always perceived by the interlocutor as an attack on his integrity;
• personal, or personal zone (45–120 cm) for casual conversation with friends and colleagues involves only visual contact between partners maintaining a conversation;
• the social zone (120–400 cm) is usually observed during official meetings in offices, usually with those who are not well known;
• the public zone (over 400 cm) implies communication with a large group of people - in a lecture hall, at a rally, etc.

Information is also carried by movements of the human body such as posture and gait.

Posture is the position of the human body, typical for a given culture, an elementary unit of human spatial behavior. Posture clearly shows how a person perceives his status in relation to the status of other persons present. Individuals with higher status adopt more relaxed postures than their subordinates.

A person’s gait, i.e., movement style, makes it easy to recognize his emotional state. Research by psychologists has shown that the heaviest gait is when you are angry, the lightest is when you are happy, and the sluggish, depressed gait is when you are suffering.

Tactile communication includes touching, patting, etc. The use of tactile elements of communication indicates mutual relationships, status, and the degree of friendship between communicants.

Paralinguistic elements - unlike gestures themselves - accompany speech and complement the emotional side of communication. Paralinguistic aspects include such linguistic means as intonation, tonal level of voice, even volume - expressing, for example, anger. Paralinguistic means can say a lot about the momentary state of the interlocutor (calmness, excitement, confidence, fatigue, etc.).

Clothing and appearance (hairstyle, jewelry, cosmetics, etc.) speaks of more stable things, such as the personality of the communicant, his or her social status, role, work.

A primary visual assessment of a person allows one to judge the degree of his openness, sincerity, emotionality, character, obvious and hidden intentions.

During communication, we are convinced 7% by words, 30% by the interlocutor’s voice, its sound, intonation, and more than 60% by gaze, gestures, and facial expressions.

This means that even a slight discrepancy between the meaning of the interlocutor’s words and gestures and facial expressions can cause great mistrust in the listener. Here are just some examples of the interpretation of gestures: crossed arms, covering the mouth with a hand - the brain sends signals to suppress lies - regardless of volitional efforts; rubbing the ear - unconscious reluctance to listen to lies; a look at the forehead and eyes - business intentions, a look at the whole face - polite-secular intentions, a look sliding up and down the body - intimate intentions, a sidelong glance combined with a smile - interest, a look combined with lowered eyebrows - hostility; narrow pupils - negative reaction, rejection; dilated pupils - interest, excitement, pleasure; rubbing your nose in combination with closed eyes means concentration.

Thus, “the eye sees the truth, the ear hears lies.” But no gesture can be interpreted without taking into account other gestures or the circumstances surrounding them.

No matter how important feelings, emotions, and relationships of people are, business communication involves not only and not so much the transfer of emotional states, but the transfer of information.

Verbal communication is the most studied type of human communication. In addition, this is the most universal way of transmitting thoughts. A message created using any other sign system can be translated into verbal human language. For example, a red light signal is translated as “the passage is closed”, “stop”, etc.

The speech side of communication has a complex multi-tiered structure and appears in various stylistic varieties (various styles and genres, colloquial and literary languages, dialects, etc.). All speech characteristics and other components of a communicative act contribute to its successful or unsuccessful implementation. When speaking with others, we select from a vast inventory of possible means of speech and non-speech communication those means that seem most suitable to us for expressing our thoughts in a given situation. This is a socially significant choice that is endless and diverse.

Let us dwell on the most general communicative characteristics of speech. From the point of view of communication theory, speech is included in a single communicative act and exhibits the following properties:

• speech is part of communicative culture and culture in general;
• speech contributes to the formation of the social role of the communicator;
• with the help of speech, mutual social recognition of communicants is achieved,
• in speech communication social meanings are created.

In speech communication, we are once again convinced that words are not just signs for designating objects or classes of objects. Using words in communication, we create entire systems of ideas, beliefs, myths characteristic of a certain community, a certain culture. Using speech, we can recognize the social status of the interlocutor or not recognize it.

Mastery of a set of techniques for building interpersonal communication is the most important condition for the success of any specialist. You need to remember the following basic rules:

1. The very first and strongest impressions of a person depend on his appearance.
2. The first four minutes of communication with him are decisive for forming an impression of someone: during this period of time, all our senses are actively working, with the help of which we create a holistic picture of another person.
3. Start the conversation only with a friendly tone, maintain a positive attitude in communication.
4. Do not forget that a smile is a kind of facial sign of affection. Even when you smile “artificially”, you turn on the mechanisms that provide us with a natural smile.
5. Use the affirmative answer method. Do not start a conversation by discussing issues on which you disagree with the other person.
6. Be a good listener.
7. Avoid criticizing colleagues and other people.
8. Avoid unnecessary arguments.
9. Show genuine interest in other people.
10. Before convincing a person of anything, try to understand his position.
11. When seeking something from a person, try to awaken in him the desire to do it.
12. Respect other people's opinions.
13. Remember and do not confuse people's names.
14. Help people feel important.
15. Give the person the opportunity to maintain his reputation.
16. Remember the enemies of communication - irritability and tactlessness.

Question 38 Communication barrier - psychological obstacles to the transmission and reception of information between communication partners. Types of communication barriers: 1. Logical barrier. Each person perceives the situation from his own point of view, depending on experience, knowledge, culture, personal needs and motivation. Before expressing a thought out loud, a person encodes information - verbalizes (turns inner speech into words). The recipient of the message deciphers the words in accordance with his level of knowledge, way of perceiving information and worldview. At the SPEAKED-HEARD-DECODE-UNDERSTAND stage, 70% of the information is lost or distorted. Example. At night there was a knock on the window. -Master, do you need firewood? -No, they are not needed. The next morning, lo and behold, the firewood in the yard had disappeared. A typical mistake in the process of evaluating information is formulated as follows: “I said what I wanted to say, he understood what I said.” It's an illusion. Firstly, the partner understands everything differently, and secondly, in his own way. The main problem of understanding lies in the peculiarities of thinking. Types of thinking

: abstract-logical, visual-figurative, visual-effective.
The speed, flexibility, breadth, and criticality of mental activity are different for everyone, which leads to distortion of information and understanding it differently from another person. Factors that make it difficult to transfer information from one partner to another:

• Inaccurate statement.
• Inappropriate use of professional terms.
• Misinterpretation of the interlocutor's intentions.
• Excessive use of foreign words.
• Incomplete information to the partner.
• Fast pace of presentation of information.
• Incomplete concentration of attention.

Floridity of thought. Overcoming barrier 1. Constant analysis of information, thinking about it. 2. Including attention to the partner in order to understand his point of view. 3. Feedback (Let's make sure everything is understood). 4. Logically structured message: competently, concisely and delivered in a language that the listener can understand. 2. Stylistic barrier. The style of presentation of information must correspond to the content.
To correctly perceive information, it is necessary to correctly select arguments, main arguments, and present information clearly and in a structured manner . Frame rule. Based on the action of the psychological law of memory: the beginning and end of any information series are remembered better. Therefore, the beginning and end of any business conversation must be clearly defined. For effective communication, it is advisable to indicate the purpose, prospects and expected results of communication at the beginning of the conversation. At the end - summarize, show a retrospective and note the degree of achievement of the goal. It is important to remember that during the first meeting, the most important part is the beginning, since the interlocutors' likes or dislikes for each other are formed, and this, in turn, affects listening and trust in the partner. In subsequent meetings and business communications, the end of the conversation is important, as it remains in the memory. Remember, people are not interested in the negotiations themselves, they are interested in how they will end. chain rule. It is based on the fact that the content of communication must be built in a chain - ordering, connecting the content. Thus, two tasks are performed at once: memorization improves; information is structured. Chain options:

• Listing 1, 2, 3, etc.
• Ranking – first about the main thing, then about the constituent elements, etc.

Logical chain: “If this is so..., then the conclusion suggests itself...”. Using the chain rule in business interaction, we not only arrange, connect, and organize the content, but also make it easier for our partner to perceive information, as well as remember it. Logical construction of a message 1. Drawing attention to information. 2. Discussion of the main provisions. 3. Answers to questions and objections. 4. Conclusion: conclusions, summary. 5. Call to action. A stylistic barrier also arises when the form of communication does not correspond to its content. For example, they invited you to a conversation, but instead of a dialogue there was a one-sided monologue. Negative and negative emotions also cause a stylistic barrier, since they do not allow you to listen carefully, and therefore understand the information. And finally, a stylistic barrier arises when information is conveyed in functional book language. Overcoming the barrier 1. Correctly structure the transmitted information. 2. Speak briefly and at a pace that is most appropriate and suitable for the communication partner. 3. Barrier “authority”. Having divided all people into authoritative and non-authoritative, a person trusts only the former and refuses to trust others. Thus, trust/distrust are, as it were, personified and depend not on the characteristics of the information, but on who is speaking. Authority depends on:

• Social status
• Attractive appearance
• Friendly attitude
• Competencies

Sincerity. If the listener trusts the speaker, then he perceives and remembers the conclusions very well, without paying attention to the course of reasoning. If there is less trust, then he is cooler about the conclusions, but very attentive to the course of reasoning. Overcoming a barrier 1. Establish a contact that inspires trust in you. 2. Prepare thoroughly for the meeting. 3. Be friendly. 4. Dress appropriately for the purpose, place and time of communication. 5. Behave confidently, communicate as equals. 4. Semantic barrier

.
It occurs when the phonetic language is “ours”, but in terms of the conveyed meaning it is “foreign”. For example, a word has not one, but several meanings. “Meaning fields” are different for everyone. Reasons for its occurrence: 1. Many lexical meanings for the same word. 2. Limited vocabulary of one of the communication partners. 3. Use of slang words. 4. Socio-cultural, professional, psychological and other differences. Coping techniques: 1. Speak “the same language” as your partner. 2. Speak as simply as possible. 3. Clarify keywords in advance. 4. Explain the definitions of words that have multiple lexical meanings and how you understand them. 5. Phonetic barrier. This is an obstacle created by the speaker's speech patterns.
Reasons for occurrence: 1. They speak a foreign language. 2. A lot of technical terminology is used. 3. Speak quickly, quietly, slurred, or too loudly. A phonetic barrier occurs when people speak in a raised voice, and understanding of information is immediately blocked. This is due to the psychological characteristics of a person. When people shout at us, a person’s attention is concentrated not on words and meaning, but on the speaker’s attitude towards his partner. As a result (as a defensive reaction), a shift in attention occurs. It blocks the analytical activity of the brain, and words addressed to the partner are not realized by him. The tone of voice and intonation of key words and phrases are of great importance for understanding information. By placing certain emphasis, placing different accents, we can change the content of the thought.

Voice highlighting	Partner's intention
THIS (and not any other) PROBLEM (and not an ordinary task) WE (and not anyone else) MUST (and would not like to) SOLVED (and not just discuss) TOGETHER (and not alone)	Focus of attention Determination of the degree of complexity Collective responsibility Responsibility to act Level of solution Solution method

Coping techniques:

1. Speak loudly, clearly, intelligibly.
2. Consider the audience and the individual characteristics of the interlocutor. The less he knows the subject of discussion, the slower he should speak. 3. Availability of feedback. Example, “Is everything clear to you?” “What other questions do you have on this topic?”, etc. 4. Place logical emphasis on important phrases or words, this allows your partner to better understand the meaning of your statement.
6. Psychological barrier.

They arise as a result of the individual psychological characteristics of those communicating or due to the relationships that have developed between them. Any information carries an element of influence on the partner’s behavior and opinion with the goal of partially or completely changing it. Not every person wants these changes; accordingly, he can resist receiving unwanted information, defending himself both from the source of information and the message itself. Factors influencing the formation of a barrier 1. Negative egocentrism (concentration on one’s negative aspects: illness, troubles at home or at work, etc.). 2. Banality (talk about things known to everyone). 3. Egocentrism (focus only on oneself). 4. Low emotionality (unchanging facial expression, monotonous voice, lack of visual contact). 5. Sullenness. 6. Ingratiating behavior. 7. Aggressive behavior. 8. Arrogance. 9. Excessive talkativeness. 10. Unsolicited advice. 11. Negative assessment of behavior or information. 12. Peremptory remarks with a careless “sweeping aside” of someone else’s opinion. 13. Vaguely formulated question or closed questions. 14. Ignoring the interlocutor. 15. Error reminder. Coping techniques: 1. An attitude of cooperation in the communication process. 2. Friendly behavior. 3. Respect for other people's opinions. 4. Honesty and openness in the communication process. 5. Showing empathy (sympathy) for your partner. 6. Expressed emotionality of behavior (friendly facial expressions, expressive voice, active gestures, smile, eye contact). 7. Adjustment to the interlocutor.

Question 39

As we have shown, the effectiveness of communication in an organization is largely related to the development of staff communication skills. The result of this process is denoted by the concept of communicative competence of the individual.

Communicative competence is a system of internal resources necessary to build effective communicative action in situations of interpersonal interaction. The communicative competence of an individual is the expression in the individual of such properties necessary for communication as:

• coding skill, i.e. verbal experience, vocabulary, use of signs, successful public speaking skills;

• cognitive experience, i.e. value system, worldview;

• situational experience, i.e. the presence of goals, needs and motives of the individual as a subject of motivation.

Thus, communicative competence is knowledge of the norms and rules of communication, and it is connected with deeper personality traits: general spiritual development, charisma, charm.

Let us consider in more detail the socio-psychological model of an individual’s communicative competence. The basic structure of a communicative person can be represented as “can”, “want”, “know”, “can”, “act”. This structure is a synthesis of the above-mentioned properties of a communicative or sociable personality, which includes:

• communicative “can”, or communicative capabilities and abilities of the individual;

• communicative “I want”, or the needs and motives of the individual as a subject of communication;

• communicative “know”, or knowledge that allows an individual to act as a communicator;

• communicative “I can”, or tools and operations, communication skills and abilities that directly implement communication.

This model, which is overly pragmatic, is aimed at professional competence and the formation of socio-psychological skills of interpersonal communication in the organization. From this understanding of an individual’s communicative competence, the worldview, value, and ethical aspects fall out, although they are the ones that determine the features of interpersonal communication in today’s media, the Internet, and indirectly in organizations.

Let's move on to characterizing specific individual actions that stimulate effective communicative behavior. To analyze such actions, the scientific literature uses the concept of communication style.

Communication style is the type of actions with which an employee builds his communicative behavior. Knowing styles helps determine the type of communicative behavior with all its pros and cons. Two variables are used to measure communication style: openness of personality and adequacy of feedback. Personal openness is the degree of sincerity of a person in communication. Feedback adequacy is the level of response to a person’s sincerity in communication.

There are five styles of interpersonal communication.

1. “Self-discovery” – characterized by a high degree of openness: from average to maximum. The individual opens himself to others, causing attention to himself. Unfortunately, the feedback is inadequately low. A person using this style takes others’ reactions to his behavior too emotionally and to heart; this can manifest itself in endless emotional conversations among colleagues, in order to clarify the situation; colleagues listen, but do not express direct support.

2. “ Self-realization” – characterized by maximum openness and maximum response to sincerity. This style is good for ideal conditions. In the real everyday life of organizational life, there are always restrictions that do not allow a person to apply this style, including differences in age, status, ideological differences, etc.

3. “Self-lockedness” – characterized by a low level of openness and a low level of response. A person withdraws into himself, establishing a clear line between himself and the team.

4. “Protecting yourself” – characterized by a low level of openness, but a high level of feedback. This style is used by people who like to discuss others, but not themselves. One can say about such people: they see the straw in the eyes of their neighbor, but do not notice the log in their own eye.

5. “Trade for yourself ” - characterized by moderate openness and moderate response. A person is sometimes put in a situation where it becomes profitable to spread all kinds of information about himself, true and not so true, in order to attract attention to himself for subsequent benefits.

When determining communication styles, it is necessary to remember that the best of them will be the one with the help of which a person’s personality will be revealed. The search for style is a search for oneself, a discovery of oneself, and this happens to a person throughout his life. This is a complex and contradictory process during which a person finds himself and his style through trials of other styles and mistakes that are inevitable along the way. But the main thing is to definitely take this path! By standing on it, we will begin to understand something about ourselves!

Another concept that reflects the characteristics of communication between individuals in a group and an organization is the concept of “ communication role ”. Accepting communication roles means that individuals perform various functions in group and organizational communication networks, which ensures their integrity. The outstanding German and American social psychologist K. Lewin identified the following communication roles:

• “watchman”, “gatekeeper” – prevents information overload by filtering and eliminating redundant messages (secretary);

• “connected” – integrates and unites parts of the network;

• “cosmopolitan” – connects the system with the external environment, giving it an open character (external relations department);

• “opinion leader” – an authority accessible for communication.

There are other classifications of communication roles.

For example, like this:

• Chairman (coordinates cooperation);

• team worker (supports other members);

• chaper (dominant participant, gives shape to ideas);

• company employee (practical organizer);

• evaluator (critical analyst of ideas);

• researcher (collaborating analyst);

• plant (idea producer and good contactee);

• finalizer (responsible for the plan and the timing of its implementation).

Having summarized the experience of theoretical studies of the communicative personality, as well as communication styles and roles, we will further consider the problem of designing communicative behavior in a modern organization. According to the theory of the communicative personality, it is necessary to develop its competencies, which are embodied in knowledge, abilities, skills and actions in the communication network.

So, for effective communication you need to be able to:

• listen and hear the interlocutor. You need to listen actively, i.e. ask questions, repeat what was heard, to confirm the adequacy of the perception of the transmitted message;

• choose the right communication channel; something more personal or more complex is best conveyed face to face. Routine messages can be transmitted through proven, formalized channels: presentations, business notes, letters, e-mail;

• understand the meaning of messages to both the sender and the recipient. To do this, the sender, if it is a manager, must study the opinions, moods, and preferences of the staff, which will help him adequately formulate the message and the employees to interpret it objectively;

• managers need to more often use various forms of direct communications with staff, clients and other groups interested in the successful operation of the organization. Here types of communication can be used such as observation, personal conversations, during which you can better understand organizational processes.

Interpersonal communication among youth

Adolescence and young adulthood are a critical period in the process of interpersonal evolution. From the age of 14, the formation of interpersonal relationships begins, in which attitudes towards subjects of reality play a different role: to older people, to parents, to classmates, to teachers, to friends, to one’s own personality, to representatives of other religions and nationalities, to patients and drug addicts.

The psychological world of a teenager is often turned to inner life; the young man is often thoughtful and fantasizing. The same period is marked by intolerance, irritability, and a tendency to aggression. By the age of 16, the stage of self-knowledge and self-affirmation begins, which is noted in increased observation. Gradually, among young people, the degree of what is unacceptable, as well as what is not accepted, tends to increase. This comes from the fact that young people become very critical of reality.

Problems of interpersonal communication among young people manifest themselves in the form of conflicts among students, which destabilize the emotional background in the team, in the group. Often, conflicts and quarrels among young people occur due to inability or lack of compassion and unwillingness to respect others. Often protests occur due to a lack of education, as well as a violation of the culture of behavior. Often the protest is targeted, i.e. directed against the culprit of the conflict situation. As soon as the conflict is resolved, the young man calms down.

In order to avoid such situations, adults are advised to maintain a calm, polite tone in communication. You should refrain from making categorical judgments about a teenager, especially when it comes to issues of fashion and music.

Adults need to try to compromise, give in in an argument, avoiding the red rag syndrome. It is especially painful if the scandal is observed by the young man’s friends or peers, so adults should give in and not be sarcastic, because only good relationships contribute to the improvement of relationships.

Your psychologist. The work of a psychologist at school.

All pages

Page 2 of 2

Topic 2. Interpersonal interaction as communication

Educational questions topic 1. Category communication in domestic social psychology. 2. Types of interpersonal communication. 3. Specific features of interpersonal communication. 4. Levels of information transmission (verbal and non-verbal).

Basic concepts on the topic The category “communication” is one of the central ones in psychological science, along with the categories “thinking”, “activity”, “personality”, “relationships”. The “cross-cutting nature” of the communication problem immediately becomes clear if we give one of the definitions of interpersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is a process of interaction between at least two persons, aimed at mutual knowledge, at establishing and developing relationships, exerting mutual influence on their states, views and behavior, as well as regulating their joint activities. Communication is the relationship between people in the course of which psychological contact arises, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual understanding, mutual influence, and mutual experience.

Questions for self-control and repetition 1. What key features are contained in the definition of communication? 2. List the functions of communication, try to independently select examples that reveal the meaning of each of them. 3. What types of interpersonal communication do you know? Name the purpose and specific features of each type. 4. What are the similarities between imperative and manipulative communication? How are they fundamentally different from dialogue? 5. Describe the humanistic type of interpersonal communication. 6. Name the features of interpersonal communication. 7. What role does the feedback mechanism play in the communication process? 8. What is the psychological meaning of communication barriers? 9. Give examples of various communication barriers. 10. How are nonverbal and verbal communication related? 11. What are the main functions of nonverbal communication in interpersonal communication? 12. List the most important nonverbal means of transmitting information to a communication partner.

Questions for reflection and discussion Using E. Melibruda’s book “I - You - We” (M.: Progress, 1986) and M. Khazanova’s article in the book “Communication and dialogue in the practice of teaching, education and psychological consultation,” analyze the problem of expressing feelings communication partners and answer the questions: 1. Do you need to hide your true feelings from your communication partner? Why? 2. What are the ways to express feelings? Mark the most effective ones. Why them? 3. What are the principles for effectively conveying feedback and criticism to a communication partner?

Practical tasks 1. The semantic barrier is one of the most common obstacles in the understanding of subjects of each other during interaction. Why do you think? 2. Describe techniques that can help overcome communication barriers when interacting: parents with children, teacher with students, leader with subordinates. How can these techniques change if the subject changes the position of communicator to recipient and vice versa? 3. Information is of two types: motivating and stating. Incentive manifests itself in the form of an order, advice or request. It stimulates some action. Stimulation is divided into activation (encouragement), interdiction (prohibition) and destabilization (mismatch or violation of forms of behavior). The statement manifests itself in the form of a message and does not imply a direct change in behavior.

Give examples of different types of information. 4. Which of the arguments regarding the personality of the communicator, in your opinion, is more convincing and why? 1) My aunt said this. 2) I learned this from our boss. 3) This was said by a German professor. 4) Yes, every smart person says so. 5) They wrote on the Internet. 6) It was on the first channel.

Diagnostic techniques

Defining Effective Communication Skills

Goal: get acquainted with effective communication skills, determine the level of development of effective listening skills. Listen, hear, understand. The ability to listen is an important component of the communicative side of communication, increasing the effectiveness of communication. Inept listening leads to the loss of part of the transmitted information and distorts the meaning of this information. Below is a self-assessment test on your listening skills.

Methodology “Can we listen” (A. V. Batarshev)

Instructions. Mark with a cross the numbers of those statements that describe situations that cause you dissatisfaction, annoyance or irritation when talking with any person. 1. The interlocutor does not give me a chance to speak; I have something to say, but there is no way to get a word in. 2. The interlocutor constantly interrupts me during a conversation. 3. The interlocutor never looks at his face during a conversation, and I am not sure whether they are listening to me. 4. Talking to a partner who doesn't make eye contact during the conversation often feels like a waste of time because it feels like he's not listening to me. 5. The interlocutor is constantly fussing: pencil and paper occupy him more than my words. 6. The interlocutor never smiles. I feel uneasy and anxious. 7. The interlocutor constantly distracts me with his questions and comments. 8. No matter what I express, the interlocutor always cools my ardor. 9. The person I'm talking to constantly tries to reject me. 10. The interlocutor “distorts” the meaning of my words and puts a different content into them. 11. When I ask a question, the interlocutor makes me defensive. 12. Sometimes the interlocutor asks me again, pretending that he did not hear. 13. The interlocutor, without listening to the end, interrupts me only to agree. 14. During a conversation, the interlocutor is concentrating on other things: playing with a pen, wiping glasses, etc., and I am firmly convinced that he is not paying attention. 15. The interlocutor draws conclusions for me. 16. The interlocutor always tries to insert a word into my story. 17. The interlocutor looks at me very carefully, without blinking. 18. The interlocutor looks at me, as if appraising me. This is worrying. 19. When I suggest something new, the interlocutor says that he thinks the same. 20. The interlocutor overacts, showing that he is interested in the conversation. Too often he nods his head, gasps and assents. 21. When I talk about serious things, the interlocutor inserts various stories, jokes and anecdotes. 22. The interlocutor often looks at his watch during a conversation. 23. When I turn to him at a meeting, he drops everything and looks at me carefully. 24. The interlocutor behaves as if I am preventing him from doing something very important. 25. The interlocutor demands that everyone agree with him. Any of his statements ends with the question: “Do you think so too?” or “Do you disagree?”

Processing test results Calculate the share of marked situations as a percentage of the total number. If it ranges from 70 to 100% (18 or more statements) - you are a bad conversationalist. You need to work on yourself and learn to listen. If it ranges from 40 to 70% (10-17 statements) - you have some shortcomings. You are critical of the statements of your interlocutor, and you still lack some of the advantages of a good listener: avoid hasty conclusions, do not focus on the manner of speaking, do not pretend, look for the hidden meaning of what is said, do not monopolize the conversation. If the noted situations range from 10 to 40% (4-9 statements) - you can be considered a good conversationalist, but sometimes you deny your partner full understanding. Try to politely repeat his statements, let him express his thoughts completely. Adapt your pace of thinking to his speech and you can be sure that communicating with you will be even more pleasant. If you scored from 0 to 10% (up to three statements) - you are an excellent conversationalist, you know how to listen, your communication style can become an example for others.

Methodology “Leading Representative System”

Each person has his own leading representative system, with the help of which he receives the greatest amount of information, navigates the world around him, and expresses his attitude to what is happening in thoughts, words, feelings, and actions. Communication occurs successfully if the interlocutors can coordinate their representative systems and communicate in “the same language.” This technique allows you to more clearly determine which representative system is leading for you. Instructions. For each of the statements, put a certain rank, for example, a number - rank 1 before the sentence that you think best describes you (most suits you), then rank 2 - before the sentence that suits you most after the first, and so until four.

Question Answer/Rank	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12
I
II
III
IV

1. I will most likely say: I - important decisions are a matter of feelings; II - important decisions depend on my mood; III - important decisions depend on my point of view; IV - important decisions are a matter of logic and intelligence. 2. He is more likely to influence me: I - who has a pleasant voice; II - who looks good; III - who speaks reasonable thoughts; IV - who leaves me with good feelings. 3. If I want to know how you are doing: I - I will look at your appearance; II - I will check how you feel; III - I will listen to the sounds of your voice; IV - I will pay attention to what you say. 4. It’s easy for me: I - modulate the fullness of sounds in a stereo system; II - draw conclusions about significant problems in the issue that interests me; III - choose super comfortable furniture; IV - find rich color combinations. 5. I - It is very easy for me to understand the meaning of new facts and data; II - my ears are always tuned to sounds in the surrounding reality; III - I feel well the clothes that fit my body; IV - When I look at a room, I describe it in bright colors. 6. If people want to know how I am doing: I - they should know about my feelings; II - they should look at how I'm dressed; III - they should listen to what I say; IV - They should listen to the intonation of my voice. 7. I prefer: I - to hear facts that you know about; II - see the pictures you painted; III - find out about your feelings; IV - listen to the intonations of your voice, the sounds of ongoing events. 8. I - When I see something, I believe it; II - when I hear facts, I believe them; III - I believe when I feel something; IV - depending on what I hear, I believe it or not. 9. I - I usually feel good about my family’s mood; II - I can draw faces, clothes, small visible details relating to my family; III - I know exactly what my family members think about the most important issues; IV - I can clearly distinguish the intonation of the voices of my family members. 10. I - I am learning to understand some things; II - I am learning to do some things; III - I learn to listen to new things; IV - I am learning to see new opportunities. 11. When I think about making an important decision, I am more likely to: I - come to the conclusion that important decisions are made with the help of feelings; II - I will come to the conclusion that important decisions are made depending on my mood; III - I will accept those that I see most clearly; IV - I will accept them using logic and reason. 12. I - It’s easy for me to remember what my friend’s voice sounds like; II - it’s easy for me to remember what my friend looks like; III - good idea - remember what my friend said; IV - It’s easy for me to remember how I feel about my friend. Processing results 1st step

Question Answer/Rank

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

I

TO

A

IN

A

D

TO

D

IN

TO

D

TO

A

II

A

IN

TO

D

A

IN

IN

D

IN

TO

A

IN

III

IN

D

A

TO

TO

D

TO

TO

D

A

IN

D

IV

D

TO

D

IN

IN

A

A

A

A

IN

D

TO

A – auditory representational system, B – visual representational system, K – kinesthetic representational system, D – “thinking, analyzing, logical, computer type”.

2nd step

Representative system / Questions / answer ranks	IN	TO	A	D
1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Total: amount
Total: leading representative system

Total: sum Total: leading representative system

The representative system that scores the least amount of ranks will be the most important, leading system for a person. The representative system that accumulates the largest sum of ranks (often in 3rd or 4th place in importance) is weakly expressed and of little significance for a person.

Test by V. F. Ryakhovsky to assess the general level of sociability

Instructions. Here are a few simple questions for your consideration. Next to each question, write one of three answer options: “yes,” “no,” or “sometimes” (in the “Answer” column). Answer quickly, without thinking about the question for a long time.

Questions	Answer	Point
1. You are about to have an ordinary meeting or a business meeting. Does her anticipation unsettle you?
2. Do you feel confused or displeased when asked to give a report, message, or information at any meeting, gathering, or similar event?
3. Do you put off visiting a doctor until the last moment?
4. You are offered to go on a business trip to a city where you have never been. Will you make every effort to avoid this business trip?
5. Do you like to share your experiences with anyone?

6. Do you get annoyed if a stranger on the street asks you (to show the way, tell the time, answer some question)?

7. Do you believe that there is a problem of “fathers and sons” and that it is difficult for people of different generations to understand each other?

8. Are you embarrassed to remind a friend that he forgot to return the money he borrowed several months ago?

9. You were served an obviously poor quality dish in a restaurant or canteen. Will you remain silent and only angrily push your plate away?

10. If you find yourself alone with a stranger, you will not enter into a conversation with him and will be burdened if he speaks first. Is it so?

11. You are horrified by any long line, no matter where it is (in a store, library, cinema box office). Would you prefer to give up your intention or stand in the back and languish in anticipation?

12. Are you afraid to participate in any commission for considering conflict situations?

13. You have your own purely individual criteria for evaluating works of literature, art, culture, and you do not accept any other people’s opinions on this matter. This is true?

14. Having heard somewhere on the sidelines expressing a clearly erroneous point of view on an issue that is well known to you, do you prefer to remain silent and not enter into an argument?

15. Do you feel annoyed when someone asks you to help you understand a particular work issue or educational topic?

16. Are you more willing to express your point of view (opinion, assessment) in writing than orally?

E =

Processing and evaluation of results.

Each answer is assigned the following score: “Yes” - 2 points, “sometimes” - 1 point, “no” - 0 points. Put the points in the appropriate column, sum them up and use the classifier to determine which category of people you belong to. Classifier for the test. 30-32 points. You are clearly uncommunicative, and this is your problem, since you yourself suffer more from this. But it’s not easy for people close to you either. It is difficult to rely on you in a matter that requires group effort. Try to be more sociable, control yourself. 25-29 points. You are reserved, not talkative, prefer loneliness, so you have few friends. A new job and the need for new contacts, if not throwing you into panic, will throw you off balance for a long time. You know this feature of your character and are dissatisfied with yourself. But don’t limit yourself to just such dissatisfaction - you have the power to reverse these character traits. Doesn’t it happen that with any strong passion you suddenly acquire complete communication skills? You just have to shake yourself up. 19-24 points. You are, to a certain extent, sociable and feel quite confident in unfamiliar surroundings. New problems don't scare you. And yet, approach new people with caution; you are reluctant to participate in disputes and disputes. Your statements sometimes contain too much sarcasm, without any justification. These shortcomings can be corrected. 14-18 points. Your communication skills are normal. You are inquisitive, willingly listen to an interesting interlocutor, patient enough in communicating with others, defend your point of view without temper. You go to meet new people without any unpleasant experiences. At the same time, you don’t like noisy companies; extravagant antics and verbosity irritate you. 9-13 points. You are very sociable (sometimes, perhaps even beyond measure). They are curious, talkative, and like to speak out on various issues, which sometimes irritates others. Be willing to meet new people. You love to be the center of attention, you don’t refuse anyone’s requests, although you can’t always fulfill them. Sometimes you get angry, but quickly move away. What you lack is perseverance, patience and courage when faced with serious problems. If you wish, however, you can force yourself not to retreat. 4-8 points. You must be a "shirt guy." Sociability flows out of you. You are always aware of everything. You love to take part in all discussions, although serious topics can give you migraines and even blues. You willingly take the floor on any issue, even if you have a superficial understanding of it. Everywhere you feel at ease. You take on any task, although you cannot always successfully complete it. For this very reason, managers and colleagues treat you with some caution and doubt. Think about these facts. 3 points or less. Your communication skills are painful. You are talkative, verbose, and interfere in matters that have nothing to do with you. You undertake to judge problems in which you are completely incompetent. Knowingly or not, you are often the cause of various kinds of conflicts in your environment. You are quick-tempered, touchy, and often biased. Serious work is not for you. People - at work, at home, and everywhere in general - have a hard time with you. Yes, you need to work on yourself and your character! First of all, cultivate patience and restraint, treat people with respect, and finally, think about your health - this lifestyle does not pass without a trace.

TEST TASKS FOR CURRENT KNOWLEDGE CONTROL Choose the correct ones from the proposed answer options. 1. Communication is... a) the process of interconnection and interaction of social subjects; b) the process of establishing and developing contacts between people; c) the relationship between people, during which psychological contact occurs, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience; d) all answers are correct. 2. The mechanisms of social perception include... a) empathy; c) projection; b) identification; d) rationalization. 3. Typical first impression schemes include... a) superiority factor; b) attractiveness factor; c) group cohesion factor; d) social desirability factor. 4. Note the functions of social perception: a) self-knowledge; b) knowledge of communication partners; c) establishing emotional relationships; d) all answers are correct. 5. The effects of social perception include... a) the primacy effect; c) edge effect; b) recency effect; d) Zeigarnik effect. 6. The functions of communication include... a) formative; b) organizing interpersonal relationships; c) confirming; d) all answers are correct. 7. What way of knowing another person involves identifying yourself with him, likening yourself to him? a) reflection; c) identification; b) empathy; d) attraction. 8. What mechanism involves the individual’s awareness of how he is perceived by his communication partner? a) reflection; c) identification; b) empathy; d) attraction. 9. What mechanism of social perception means the desire to respond emotionally to a partner’s problems... a) reflection; c) identification; b) empathy; d) attraction. 10. Identification in social psychology... a) is one of the ways of understanding another person; b) is expressed in likening oneself to another person; c) is one of the mechanisms for learning experience; d) all answers are correct. 11. The perceptual side of communication is... a) transfer of information; b) interaction in the communication process; c) perception and understanding of each other by partners; d) attributing reasons for people's behavior. 12. The communicative side of communication is... a) people’s perception and understanding of each other; b) interaction between people; c) the process of information exchange between communicating; d) attributing reasons for people's behavior. 13. Note what is not non-verbal communication: a) facial expressions; c) eye contact; b) gestures; d) speech. 14. Non-verbal types of communication include... a) optical-kinetic system of signs; b) paralinguistic system of signs; c) extralinguistic system of signs; d) all answers are correct. 15. Voice quality: timbre, pitch, tonality, intonation refer... a) to proximics; b) to the paralinguistic system of signs; c) to the optical-kinesthetic system of signs; d) all answers are incorrect. 16. Gestures and facial expressions that reflect a person’s emotional reactions belong to... a) proximics; b) to the paralinguistic system of signs; c) to the optical-kinesthetic system of signs; d) all answers are incorrect. 17. A stable idea about any phenomena or people, characteristic of representatives of a particular social group, is called... a) stereotype; c) installation; b) prejudice; d) all answers are incorrect. 18. The style of interpersonal communication, which involves influencing a communication partner in order to achieve one’s hidden intentions, is called... a) humanistic; c) monologue; b) ritual; d) manipulative. 19. An equal form of interpersonal communication, aimed at cognition, self-knowledge and self-disclosure of communication partners, is called... a) humanistic; c) monologue; b) ritual; d) manipulative. 20. Through what style of communication does a person confirm his existence as a member of a particular group that is important to him? a) manipulative; c) ritual; b) humanistic; d) imperative. 21. K. Rogers identifies the following as the fundamental principles of humanistic communication:. a) non-judgmental perception of the partner’s personality; b) congruence of communication partners; 39 c) personalized nature of communication; d) all answers are correct 22. What is the name of the perception effect, which is characterized by the unreasonable transfer of impressions about the external characteristics of a person to personal characteristics? a) primacy effect; c) halo effect; b) the effect of stereotyping; d) the effect of physiognomic reduction. 23. The direction of perception, carried out under the influence of the first elements of available information, is called: a) the primacy effect; c) the effect of novelty; b) halo effect; d) the effect of getting used to the role. 24. In the observation scheme of R. Bales, the area of ​​negative emotions includes... a) solidarity, stress relief, agreement; b) proposal, instruction, opinion, orientation of others; c) a request for information, a request to express an opinion, a request for direction; d) disagreement, creating tension, demonstrating antagonism. 25. What 2 personality types were identified by E. Shostrom? a) actualizer and manipulator; c) “hooligan” and “nice guy”; b) “judge” and “defender”; d) “dictator” and “rag”. 26. People interact with each other based on their experience, weighing possible rewards and costs - this is the main idea... a) J. Homans’ theory of exchange; b) theories of symbolic interactionism; c) psychoanalytic theory; d) I. Goffman’s theory of impression management. 27. People’s behavior in relation to each other and the objects of the surrounding world is determined by the meanings they attach to them, says... a) the exchange theory of J. Homans; b) theories of symbolic interactionism; c) psychoanalytic theory; d) I. Goffman’s theory of impression management. 40 28. Situations of social interaction are similar to dramatic performances in which actors strive to create and maintain favorable impressions, says... a) exchange theory of J. Homans; b) symbolic interactionism; c) psychoanalytic theory; d) I. Goffman's theory of impression management. 29. Transactional analysis includes the following types of analysis:. a) structural analysis; c) game analysis; b) scenario analysis; d) all answers are correct. 30. What state of the “I”, according to transactional analysis, is formed in childhood and contains attitudes and behavior adopted from parents? a) child; c) parent; b) adult; d) ideal. 31. E. Berne identifies the following types of transactions:. a) additional; c) intersecting; b) straight; d) open. 32. Interaction in which partners adequately perceive each other’s position, understand the situation equally, and meet each other’s expectations is called. a) open; c) hidden; b) intersecting; d) additional.

LITERATURE Main literature 1. Amelkov, A. A. Psychological diagnostics of interpersonal interaction / A. A. Amelkov. — Mozyr: Assistance, 2006. — 108 p. 2. Andreeva, G. M. Social psychology: textbook. / G. M. Andreeva. - M.: Aspect Press, 2003. - 364 p. 3. Andrienko, E. V. Social psychology / E. V. Andrienko. - M.: Vlados Press, 2002. - 264 p. 4. Bityanova, M. R. Social psychology / M. R. Bityanova. - M.: Eksmo Press, 2001. - 576 p. 5. Dukhnovsky, S. V. Diagnosis of interpersonal relationships / S. V. Dukhnovsky. - St. Petersburg. : Rech, 2010. - 141 p. 6. Krysko, V. G. Social psychology: textbook. / V. G. Krysko. - M.: Vlados Press, 2002. - 448 p. 7. Myers, D. Social psychology / D. Myers. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house "Peter", 2004. - 512 p. 8. Social psychology: textbook. allowance / under. ed. A. L. Zhuravleva. - M.: PERSE, 2002. - 351 p. 9. Social psychology / ed. A. M. Stolyarenko. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2001. - 543 p. 10. Social psychology. Reader / compilers: E. P. Belinskaya, O. A. Tikhomandritskaya. - M.: Aspect Press, 2003. - 475 p.

Additional literature 11. Andreeva, G. M. Foreign social psychology of the twentieth century / G. M. Andreeva, N. N. Bogomolova, L. A. Petrovskaya. - M.: ASPECT PRESS, 2002. - 288 p. 12. Batarshev, A. V. Psychodiagnostics of the ability to communicate, or How to determine the organizational and communicative qualities of a person / A. V. Batarshev. — M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 1999. - 176 p. 13. Belinskaya, E. P. Social psychology of personality / E. P. Belinskaya, O. A. Tikhomadritskaya. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - 301 p. 14. Bern, E. Games that people play: Psychology of human relationships; People who play games: Psychology of human destiny / trans. from English / E. Bern. - M.: List-New, 1997. - 336 p. 15. Goryanina, V. A. Psychology of communication / V. A. Goryanina. - M.: Publishing house. , 2004. - 416 p. 16. Krysko, V. G. Social psychology: Schemes and comments / V. G. Krysko. - M.: VLADOS-PRESS, 2001. - 208 p. 17. Kunitsyna, V. N. Interpersonal communication / V. N. Kunitsyna, N. V. Kazarinova, V. M. Pogolsha. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house "Peter", 2001. - 544 p. 18. Parygin, B. D. Anatomy of communication / B. D. Parygin. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house V. A. Mikhailov, 1999. - 301 p. 19. Rogov, E. I. Psychology of communication / E. V. Rogov. - M.: Vlados, 2002. - 336 p. 20. Social psychology in the works of domestic psychologists / comp. and general editing by A. L. Sventitsky. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house "Peter", 2000. - 512 p. 21. Cialdini, R. Psychology of influence / R. Cialdini. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house "Peter", 1999. - 272 p. 22. Shibutani, T. Social psychology / T. Shibutani; lane from English - Rostov - n/a: Phoenix, 1998. - 344 p. 23. Shikhirev, P. M. Modern social psychology / P. M. Shikhirev. - M.: IP RAS; KSP, 1999. - 448 p.

Source: Korsak N.V. Social psychology. Interpersonal interaction: a practical guide / N. V. Korsak, I. V. Silchenko; Gomel State University named after F. Skorina. - Gomel: GGU im. F. Skorina, 2021. - 43 p.

<< Previous — Next