Subject and tasks of psychology. Basic questions of psychology

What is the essence of psychology? Speaking somewhat metaphorically, in the development and improvement of detailed instructions for and for a person, so that he can effectively and environmentally manage himself, his life, his happiness. There are everyday and scientific psychology. The latter provides more objective and rational knowledge that allows you to be in harmony with your inner nature and find suitable ways for its successful implementation in society.

The place of psychology in the system of human sciences

The methodological basis of psychology is philosophy and anatomy and physiology.

The basis of psychology is general psychology.

Modern psychology is closely connected with many sciences, occupying an “intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, the natural sciences, on the other, and the social sciences, on the third.

This is explained by the fact that the center of her attention always remains a person, whom the above-mentioned sciences also study, but in other aspects.

According to the classification of sciences by Academician A. Kedrov, psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.

Psychology integrates all these data from the sciences, and in turn influences them, becoming a general model of human knowledge. There is a close connection between psychology and literature, poetry, music and other types of arts that express the essence and characteristics of the human soul and personality.

The main categories of psychology: psyche, consciousness, personality, activity, communication.

The basis of psychology is general psychology. Modern psychology is closely connected with many sciences, occupying... This is explained by the fact that the center of its attention always remains the person whom the above-mentioned are studying...

The problem of man in psychology: personal aspect

The main object of interest of representatives of this science is the problem of personality, which is studied in various fields in psychology. Personality is considered by psychologists mainly from a social perspective, without taking into account the biological component of human essence. The formation of personality - a multi-level system of psychological characteristics - is influenced by many factors, especially the historical basis, the environment, and the moral and ethical attitudes existing in society. What comes out of a particular person depends on his own strong-willed qualities, ability to resist or succumb to circumstances.

Many pressing problems in psychology remain unresolved due to the lack of consensus. Representatives of different branches of psychological science have not yet come to an agreement on answers to the following questions:

• what age is critical for personality formation;
• what prevails in its structure - the unconscious or the conscious (rational);
• to what extent a person is able to control his own behavior, whether he has free will;
• what and in what proportions a personality is made up of - innate or acquired qualities and properties.

The subject of psychology, its tasks

Psychology is the science of facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche, as an image of objective reality that develops in the brain, on the basis of which the behavior and activities of a person, which have a personal character, are controlled.

The subject of psychology research is facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche.

Tasks of psychology:

-learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;

-learn to manage them;

-use the acquired knowledge to improve the efficiency of those

branches of practice, at the intersection with which lie established

sciences and industries;

-be the theoretical basis for the practice of psychological services.

Subject studies of psychology - facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche. Objectives of psychology: -learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;

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Psychology - the science of the soul

... the origin of the human psyche. The idea of ​​the emergence of the psyche in psychology The answer to the question about the moment of the emergence of the psyche should also determine the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe psyche as a whole: the definition of the concept of “psyche”, the criteria for its difference from “non-psyche” and how...

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Today, the subject of study of psychology is the psyche, mental phenomena of a person and mental phenomena in teams and groups. Within the framework of general psychology, which studies the most general patterns based on a generalization of theoretical and experimental psychological research, mental processes are described: sensation, attention, perception, imagination, representation, thinking, memory, speech, emotions, will, as well as mental states and personality properties.

Features of psychology as a science

1. Materialistic philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus

understood the human soul as a type of matter, as a bodily

education.

2. Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from

body.3. The great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise “On the Soul” highlighted psychology

as a unique area of ​​knowledge and first put forward the idea of ​​inseparability

soul and living body.

4. The main stages of the development of psychology:

Stage I - psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of a soul.

Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness. Appears in the 17th century. in connection with the development of natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire was called consciousness. The main method of study was a person's observation of himself and the description of facts.

Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior. Appears in the 20th century.

The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely human behavior, actions, and reactions (the motives causing the actions were not taken into account).

Stage IV - psychology as a science that studies objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

5. The history of psychology as an experimental science begins in 1879

founded in Leipzig by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, the first

world of experimental psychological laboratory.

In 1885, Bekhterev V.M. organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

6. The word “psychology” is formed from two Greek words “psyche” (soul) and “logos” (teaching, science), it first appeared in the 17th century in the work of the German philosopher Christian Wolf.

understood the human soul as a type of matter, as a bodily formation. 2. Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from

Psychology of human memory

And I would also like to dwell on such an object of study of psychology as memory. Why her?

Memory is the most intriguing human ability. It makes a person a person. If the functionality of any of the sense organs fails, the person will still remain himself. But without memory he will lose his “I”.

Memory is comprehensive: any mental process will necessarily become a memory.

Someone calculated that the human brain can store 1 million gigabytes of information. For comparison, a computer's RAM is 4-8 gigabytes, tiny compared to the brain.

But how memory works is a mystery that has armies of scientists puzzling over it. A widespread theory (and psychoanalysis is built on it) is that a person does not forget anything, his entire past is encoded in his brain. And if you find the code, you can resurrect the smallest details of the past. This theory is confirmed by hypnosis and phenomenal examples of absolute memory - they exist.

Neuroscientists say that the process of remembering is the result of imprinting on tens of billions of human brain cells. But how exactly do the bonds work in this mixture of molecules, ions, proteins and lipids? There is still a long way to go to solve this mystery. The main paradox is that each molecule of the body is reborn several times during life, connections between them are formed and destroyed millions of times, but memory is preserved.

What is the practical use of memory psychology? Memory can be developed.

For example, have you heard of Cicero's method of memorization, also called the Roman room system? This is interesting. The famous Roman politician was a master of oratory and spoke without notes. And he remembered his speech before the performance as follows. I walked around the house and mentally placed the main points in different places. Try to arrange your thoughts in a certain order, imagining some familiar room and, as it were, walking around it along a certain route.

But this is a particular thing. To summarize, the most popular ways to develop memory are:

• associative series,
• word games,
• mechanical learning by heart,
• reading aloud,
• logical problems, solving equations and examples in the mind,
• some computer games and online simulators.

Train your memory! It reflects the past but serves the future. That is, what was is fixed in memory insofar as it is necessary for what will be. Difficult? But exciting!

Foreign theories

1. Structuralism - W. Wundt, E. Titchener (division of consciousness into separate

elements).

2. Functionalism - F. Galton, W. James, D. Dewey (mental functioning)

3. Behaviorism - E.L. Thorndike, J. Watson (studies behavior).

4. Psychoanalysis - Z. Freud (the role of the unconscious, sexual).

5. Neo-Freudianism - K. Horney, G.S. Sullivan, K. Jung (discovered extroverts and

introverts).

6. Gestalt psychology - K. Koffka, K. Köhler (psychology of the properties of the whole

determine the properties of its parts).

7. Genetic psychology - J. Piaget (study of mental development

child, his intelligence).

8. Cognitive psychology -J. Bruner, G. Simon, F. Heider (knowledge, cognition,

computer technology, cybernetics).

9. Humanistic psychology - K. Rogers, A. Maslow (creative possibilities

person)

10. Associative theories (associations - connections)

elements).

2. Functionalism - F. Galton, W. James, D. Dewey (mental functioning) 3. Behaviorism - E. L. Thorndike, J. Watson (studies behavior).

Domestic theories

1. Cultural-historical theory - L.S. Vygotsky.

2. Theory of activity - A.N. Leontiev.

3. Theory of leading activity - P.Ya. Galperin, A.R. Luria, D.B. Elkonin,

A.V. Zaporozhets.

4. Unity of consciousness and activity - S.L. Rubinstein

5. Psychology of individual differences – B.M. Teplov, V.S. Merlin.

6. Psychology of relationships – V.N. Myasishchev.

7. Human knowledge – B.G. Ananyev.

Age-related psychology

Acquaintance with developmental psychology is very interesting because it considers psychological crises as necessary stages for the transition to a new stage of development, and at the same time natural ways of overcoming them are described. In general, she studies the patterns of human development and the age-related dynamics of his psyche. According to Shapovalenko I.V., the main tasks of developmental psychology are as follows:

• Explore the age-related development of personality, taking into account the historical situation.
• To study the patterns and features of the course of mental processes in different age periods.
• Establish age-related capabilities, features, and patterns of acquiring knowledge and carrying out various types of activities.
• To study the driving forces, their sources and mechanisms of human mental development throughout his life.
• Determine age norms for the development of mental functions, identify psychological resources and creative potential of a person.
• Compile the most accurate periodization of mental development.
• Create methods for age-related and clinical diagnostics.
• Promote the creation of services to ensure systematic monitoring of mental health throughout children's development.
• Develop programs for psychological support and assistance to people during crisis periods in their lives.
• To develop the most optimal organization of educational processes for representatives of any age categories.

Today there are many age periodizations, for example, foreign authors - S. Freud, C. Jung, K. Horney, J. Piaget, E. Erikson, D. Bromley, and domestic ones - Vygotsky L. S., Elkonin D. B. , Bozhovich L.I., Lisina M.I., Leontyeva A.N. Quite a lot of attention is paid to solving problems of developmental psychology, since it reveals ways of harmonious and comprehensive human development.

Scientific psychology, thanks to its wide industry network, contains a colossal amount of knowledge about human personality and how to apply this knowledge to various areas of his life. They are just waiting to be used as instructions for improving the quality of life of every person.

Domestic psychology

Directions:

1. Philosophical and religious – N. Grot (1852 – 1899), L. Lopatin (1855 – 1920), G. Chelpanov (1862 – 1936).

2. Natural science – I.M. Sechenov (1829 – 1905), V.M. Bekhterev (1857 – 1927), I.P. Pavlov (1849 – 1936).

Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889-1960), Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977) and a number of others. It is to their work that we primarily owe the fact that currently psychologists in our country do not have to start from scratch.

A.F. Lazursky (1874 – 1917) – founder of the natural experiment, questions of personality and human character.

M.Ya. Basov (1892 – 1931) – observation method.

Alexey Nikolaevich Leontiev , Boris Gerasimovich Ananyev (1907-1972), Alexander Vladimirovich Zaporozhets (1905-1981), Daniil Borisovich Elkonin (1904-1984), Pyotr Yakovlevich Galperin (1902-1988), etc.

1. Philosophical and religious – N. Grot (1852 – 1899), L. Lopatin (1855 – 1920), G. Chelpanov (1862 – 1936).

2. Natural science – I.M. Sechenov (1829 – 1905), V.M. Bekhterev (1857 –... Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein (1889-1960), Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), Alexander Romanovich Luria (1902-1977) and...

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Diagnostic approach based on the theory of J. Piaget; development theories...

... Case: 1) problem solving, 2) research activity, 3) imitation, 4) control, 5) maturation. Diagnostic approach based on the theory of J. Piaget The theory of the development of a child’s thinking, proposed by J. Piaget, ... tasks (R. Keyes). Along with internal operational schemes that are projected onto the psyche, theories of development arose in which operational schemes began to be projected onto the external environment, i.e. ...

B.G. Ananiev - study of issues of perception, psychology of pedagogical assessment, general integral issues of human knowledge.

A.N. Leontiev - development of problems of perception, memory, consciousness, personality and mental development. He developed the theory of psychological theory of activity. A.V. Zaporozhets together with D.B. Elkonin laid the foundations of child psychology.

Alexander Vladimirovich Zaporozhets (1905-1981) - developed issues of general and child psychology, psychology of sensory processes and movement; contributed to the psychological theory of activity.

D.B. Elkonin is the author of the theory of children's play and the concept of periodization of age-related development. P.Ya. Halperin is a theory of the systematic (stage-by-stage) formation of mental actions. A.R. Luria - research into the neurophysiological foundations of human memory and thinking.

Psychophysiologist E.N. Sokolov - created the theory of color vision, a theory that explains human perception of the shape of objects, and a neurophysiological theory of memory.

Tasks

Like any other science, psychology solves a number of unique and specific problems. Based on the definition of the subject, the following tasks of psychology are distinguished:

1. Study of psychic phenomena.
2. Study of the patterns of their formation and development.
3. Study of physiological processes that cause mental phenomena.
4. Introduction of psychological knowledge into people's life.

Solving the problems of psychology allows us to identify ways to correctly master practical tools for the formation and development of mental processes, states and personality traits, as well as to develop scientific and practical methods for education and training, rationalization of work processes and interaction of people in various types of activities.

Requirements for methods of psychological research

For the reliability of the results of psychodiagnostic research, it is necessary that psychodiagnostic methods meet a number of requirements.1. Validity - “completeness”, “suitability”, “compliance” - is determined by the correspondence of the indicators of the quality being studied, obtained using this technique, to the indicators obtained using other techniques.2. Reliability – characterizes the possibility of obtaining stable indicators using this technique. The reliability of a psychodiagnostic technique can be established in two ways: by comparing the results obtained by this technique by different people, by comparing the results obtained by the same technique under different conditions.3. The unambiguity of the technique is characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely that property

, for the assessment of which this technique is used.4.
Accuracy – reflects the ability of the technique to subtly respond to the slightest changes in the assessed property that occur during a psychodiagnostic experiment.
19 pp., 9287 words

The structure of the human psyche. Consciousness as the highest level of mental development

... (and selectivity) to releasers. Social behavior Social behavior includes manifestations of mental activity directly related to the interaction between individuals and their groups. There are two...

Topic 1.2. Psyche and its development

The concept of the psyche, its structure and functions

Psyche is a systemic quality of the brain

The psyche is the essence where the diversity of nature gathers into its unity, it is a virtual compression of nature, it is a reflection of the objective world in its connections and relationships.

The psyche is a “subjective image of the objective world.”

There are different approaches to understanding who has a psyche:

1) anthropopsychism (Descartes) - the psyche is inherent only to man;

2) panpsychism (French materialists) - the universal spirituality of nature, i.e. all nature, the whole world has a psyche (including stone);

3) biopsychism - the psyche is a property of living nature (also inherent in plants);

4) neuropsychism (C. Darwin) - the psyche is characteristic only of organisms that have a nervous system;

5) brainpsychism (K.K. Platonov) - the psyche is only in organisms with a tubular nervous system that have a brain (with this approach, insects do not have a psyche, since they have a nodular nervous system, without a pronounced brain).

The human psyche is formed in a person only during his lifetime in the process of assimilating the culture created by previous generations.

Thus, the human psyche includes 3 components: the external world (nature, its reflection); full brain activity; interaction with people (active transmission of human culture and human abilities to new generations).

1) anthropopsychism (Descartes) - the psyche is inherent only to man; 2) panpsychism (French materialists) - the universal spirituality of nature,... 3) biopsychism - the psyche is a property of living nature (also inherent in plants);

Structure of the human psyche

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations.

Usually there are three large groups of mental phenomena :

1) mental processes (cognitive, emotional, volitional);

2) mental states;

3) mental properties.

History and theories - who introduced the concept of intelligence

The term “intelligence” was first used in the 20th century, introduced by the German psychologist William Stern.

Alfred Bene created IQ tests. The main task is to identify the level of intelligence of schoolchildren, the properties of students’ intelligence, to understand which of them is lagging behind in the program and who needs additional help. The test began to be used very widely, and various variants appeared. Today, such testing is disputed by scientists; not everyone recognizes its reliability and effectiveness.

What do you think about intelligence testing? Have you ever undergone such tests at least once in your life? Share your opinion and experience in the comments.

There are many theories of intelligence, but only a few are the most popular and widespread.

Functions of the psyche

1. Reflection of the surrounding world

2. Regulation of the behavior and activities of a living creature in order to ensure its survival.

Stages of mental development (A.N. Leontiev)

1. Sensitivity (the criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of the psyche in living organisms is the presence of sensitivity).

2. Instinctive behavior (innate form of behavior)

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Types of higher nervous activity and temperament

... a certain organization, structure, characterizing 3 temperaments. So, temperament should be understood as individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which, equally manifesting themselves in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, ...

3. Skills (acquired form of behavior)

4. Intellectual behavior of animals (the beginnings of thinking)

2. Regulation of the behavior and activities of a living creature in order to ensure its survival. Stages of development of the psyche (A.N. Leontyev) 1. Sensitivity (the criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of the psyche in living organisms is the presence of sensitivity).

Concept of reflection

Mental reflection is not a mirror, mechanically passive copying of the world; it is associated with search and choice.

Psychic reflection is active reflection.

Structure of human intelligence

The structure represents the following components of intelligence:

• general intelligence (a set of mental properties that ensure the success of any activity);
• verbal and nonverbal human intelligence (nonverbal intelligence is based on visual-effective thinking, verbal intelligence is based on the use of verbal and logical forms);
• private intellectual skills (school knowledge, level of general erudition, generalization, abstract thinking, etc.).

The concept of consciousness. Functions, structure

Consciousness is the highest, human-specific form of generalized reflection of the objective stable properties and patterns of the surrounding world, the formation of a person’s internal model of the external world, as a result of which knowledge and transformation of the surrounding reality is achieved.

Properties of consciousness: building relationships, cognition and experience

Functions of consciousness:

1) reflective,

2) generative (creative-creative),

3) regulatory-evaluative,

4) reflexive - the main function that characterizes the essence of consciousness.

There are two layers of consciousness (V.P. Zinchenko).

I. Existential consciousness (consciousness for being), which includes: 1) biodynamic properties of movements, experience of actions; 2) sensory images.

II. Reflective consciousness (consciousness for consciousness), including: 1) meaning; 2) meaning.

Consciousness develops in humans only through social contacts. In phylogenesis, human consciousness developed and becomes possible only under conditions of active influence on nature, in conditions of labor activity. Consciousness is possible only in the conditions of the existence of language, speech, which arises simultaneously with consciousness in the process of labor.

Properties of consciousness: building relationships, cognition and experience Functions of consciousness: 1) reflective,

Methods of psychological influence on people

Society is people in constant communication. They influence each other, consciously or unconsciously. Methods of influencing others have a number of options:

1. Infection. This is the transfer of an emotional state between people. Panic and the cry of one person spoils the mood of everyone present. You can become “infected” with both negative and positive emotions.
2. Suggestion. The motivation for a specific action is instilled through verbal or non-verbal speech. Each personality is characterized by varying degrees of suggestibility. Insecure people, including children under 13, are more suggestible than independent people.
3. Belief. Action on the part of a person is caused by logical thinking. The higher the intelligence, the less prone to persuasion.
4. Imitation. People often copy the manners of others (consciously, unconsciously). Frequent role models are successful, wealthy individuals.

Manipulation is another way of influence. The manipulator gets what he wants, the opponent is left with the illusion of an independently made decision.

Human psychology is an interesting science. Anyone can understand its basics. But not everyone is able to practically apply the acquired theoretical knowledge. A psychologist will help you understand the intricacies of this complex discipline.

IMPORTANT! Informational article! Before use, you should consult a specialist.

Structure of self-awareness, self-esteem

The epicenter of consciousness is the consciousness of one’s own “I”. The image of “I” is the separation of oneself from the environment.

Self-awareness – awareness of oneself, one’s needs, motives, one’s qualities; the highest form of consciousness.

Self-awareness includes self-knowledge and self-relation.

Structure of self-awareness:

1) Awareness of your goals and motives.

2) Awareness: I am real, I am ideal.

3) Cognitive representations

4) Emotional-sensual self-knowledge and self-attitude.

Self-esteem is a person’s assessment of himself.

Self-awareness – awareness of oneself, one’s needs, motives, one’s qualities; the highest form of consciousness. Self-awareness includes self-knowledge and self-relation. Structure of self-awareness:

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Key performance indicators of a teacher (through the eyes of students in grades 9–11)

... to the teacher. The maximum score is 75, which indicates the student’s high assessment of the teacher’s work.

Specifics of the unconscious, its structure.

Topic 1.3. Activity as a way of existence

Concept of activity

Activity is the active interaction of a person with the environment, as a result of which he achieves a consciously set goal that arose as a result of the emergence of a certain need or motive.

The theory of activity in the works of A.N. Leontyev

A.N. Leontiev put forward the concept of activity, which is currently one of the recognized theoretical directions of modern psychology. Scheme of activity: (activity – action – operation – psychophysiological functions), correlated with the structure of the motivational sphere (motive – goal – condition).

The main concepts of this theory are activity, consciousness and personality.

Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of several nonequilibrium levels. The top level is the level of special activities, then comes the level of actions, followed by the level of operations, and the lowest is the level of psychophysiological functions. The central place in this hierarchical structure is occupied by action, which is the main unit of activity analysis.

The main concepts of this theory are activity, consciousness and personality. Human activity has a complex hierarchical structure. It consists of…

Psychology of human memory

Memory plays an important role in human psychology. Storing information in memory contributes to development, learning, and personality formation. The fundamental stone of memory is the change in nerve cells under the influence of stimuli, the long-term preservation of excitation. This leads to a number of biochemical changes in neurons. When recalling things in memory, nerve cells become excited despite the absence of stimuli.

The psychology of memory is associated with the qualities of water. This is not surprising, since the human body consists of 80% of this liquid. Water remembers the conditions in which it was previously. This quality is due to the absorption capacity, the ability to transform and redistribute energy.

Activity structure

Needs are the source of personality activity; they force a person to act actively. This is a person’s awareness of the need for something that he needs to maintain the body and develop his personality.

Types of needs:

— natural (natural) and social (spiritual);

- conscious and unconscious.

The goal is what the activity is directly aimed at.

A motive is a form of manifestation of a need, an incentive for a certain activity, the object for the sake of which the activity is carried out.

Movement is a motor function of a living organism, the simplest component of activity.

Types of movements:

- involuntary and voluntary,

- congenital and acquired.

Actions are a set of movements that have a goal and are aimed at a specific object (subject).

Actions are always social and are usually performed consciously.

Types of actions:

— subject;

- mental, strong-willed;

- actions aimed at other people - an act (or misdemeanor).

Types of needs: - natural (natural) and social (spiritual); - conscious and unconscious.

Main activities: communication, play, work, learning

They are present in the life of every person, the development of the psyche and personality takes place in them. The concept of leading activities of A.N. Leontyev.

The importance of psychology lessons

Knowledge of human psychology is applicable in almost all areas of human life. Sometimes situations arise that require people to make an important decision, to determine the right approach. Social psychology lessons help you take an unmistakable step. They will be useful to all people who want to adapt to society, achieve mutual understanding with the environment, understand the causal factors of current events, the motives that drive other people. Psychological knowledge helps in solving personal life problems and confronting the problems that accompany a person in life. In addition to specialized literature on psychology for beginners, you can learn this science with the help of expert recommendations.

Psychology lessons developed for teaching embody knowledge taken from various theoretical materials. Professional psychologists work on them, whose task is not only to bring a number of scientific conclusions to students, but also to adapt them to practical use. Each lesson contains useful recommendations and various thematic tips.

The first step in learning is to study the person's personality. The study of causal factors affecting people's behavior requires determining the causal factors that influence their mental state. Practically, psychological theory is applied thanks to special methods. Having studied everything about psychology, the future specialist learns to influence other people and create friendly relationships with them.

You can get rid of fears and be confident in yourself with a specialist. For example, from the psychologist Nikita Valerievich Baturin.

What is the advantage of specialized psychology lessons over self-study using literature? The training course is specially created for beginners in this science who want to quickly learn to understand people. An experienced specialist, along with theoretical information, indicates the possibilities of their practical application. Without this, training with the help of psychological books can last for years without results - a person will not learn to behave in a conflict, difficult situation.

In addition to theoretical material, the specialist uses thematic games and exercises in the classroom. This helps to consolidate the acquired knowledge and improve understanding not only of others, but also of oneself. During lessons, students can participate in psychological tests and watch thematic videos.

Mastering activities: abilities, skills, habits

A skill is a successful way of performing an activity.

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Scientists divide a person’s age into the following types: chronological, ...

...give the concept of the social situation of development, the leading type of activity, and mental new formations. Age periodization is the periodization of human development from birth to death, determining ... the age of puberty. P. P. Blonsky points out the instability of the nervous system and the unbalanced, unmotivated behavior of children during critical periods. L.S. Vygotsky ...

Skills are partially automated actions that are learned through practice.

Types of skills : walking, running, writing, thinking, sensory, behavioral skills, etc.

Habit is the need to perform an appropriate action.

Types of habits: professional, moral, hygienic, aesthetic, educational, cultural behavior, etc. Useful and bad habits.

Topic 1.4. Man as an individual

The concepts of “individual”, “personality”, “subject”, “individuality”.

Skills are partially automated actions that are learned through practice. Types of skills: walking, running, writing, thinking, sensory, behavioral skills and... Habit is the need to perform an appropriate action.

Temperament as a characteristic of a person’s individual properties

Temperament is a personality trait that gives a unique color to all activities and behavior of people.

Temperament is the individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamics of his mental activity and behavior.

The term "temperament" in Latin means "proper proportion of parts."

Characteristics of temperament: activity and emotionality.

Theories of temperament

Interesting facts in the field of psychology

Education in the field of human psychology facilitates personal growth, helps to establish positive relationships with the environment, and helps to achieve success in professional activities. Scientific progress in this area has opened up new, previously unknown interesting facts about human psychology, and explained the reasons for specific actions or lack thereof.

Interesting facts in psychology that make you look at the human soul from a different perspective:

1. Happiness lies in keeping the brain constantly busy. The lack of new information and the ability to switch thinking between individual topics is depressing.
2. During sleep, the brain remains active. As a result, after waking up, a person remembers only really important facts.
3. The gray brain matter is a “sensor” of possible danger. But most people often ignore the signals sent to him, relying on happiness.
4. When starting a new activity, a person needs 2 months to get used to it. After this time, all innovations become automatic and do not cause discomfort.
5. People who suffer from nightmares usually feel cold in their sleep.
6. The best method for getting rid of anxiety is a book. Reading will help you switch your thinking faster and more effectively than music, sports, alcohol, or watching TV.
7. Expecting too much = painful failure. The more mundane the plans, the quieter the reaction to failure.
8. A notable fact of interesting psychology: when in an unknown place, people tend to stick to the right. Therefore, the queue on the left is always shorter than the queue on the right.
9. The tendency to disrupt order manifests itself in the presence of manifestations of reigning anarchy.
10. Few people want to argue with a calm person. Most people prefer emotional opponents.
11. The longer you sleep, the lower your risk of mental illness.
12. To create a positive relationship, it is important to say the name of the interlocutor.
13. A way to quickly fall asleep: in a supine position, close your eyes and roll your pupils up. This position promotes sleep.
14. The loudest speaker often wins the debate. Although often the emotionally speaking person turns out to be wrong.
15. An interesting psychological fact is that the lack of ability to assess the consequences of erroneous actions is the reason why incompetent people often achieve heights. They are characterized by stubbornness and self-confidence due to lack of professionalism.
16. External beauty is less common among criminals. Beautiful people get what they want from life in any case: either through charm or at the expense of others.
17. People focused on solving a problem often do not notice what is happening around them.
18. A few second glance is typical for ordinary interlocutors. A prolonged gaze indicates physical attraction or hidden aggression.

Humoral theory.

Back in ancient Greece, the physician Hippocrates proposed the concept of temperament. Temperament depends on the ratio of the four body fluids and which one predominates: blood (in Latin "sangve"), mucus (in Greek "phlegm"), red-yellow bile (in Greek "chole"), black bile (in Greek "melaine chole").

The mixture of these fluids, Hippocrates argued, underlies the main types of temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic.

Having given, in general, a correct description of the basic temperaments, Hippocrates could not give a scientific justification for them.

The mixture of these liquids, Hippocrates argued, underlies the main types of temperaments: sanguine, choleric, melancholic and... Having, in general, given a correct description of the basic temperaments, Hippocrates could not...

Constitutional theory.

It arose in the 20th century (Kretschmer, Sheldon).

The main idea is to establish a connection between temperament and a person’s physique.

Sheldon argued that body type depends on how a person’s intrauterine development proceeded.

Kretschmer correlated certain personality types with types of body structure.

Physiological theory.

I.P. Pavlov, studying the work of the cerebral hemispheres, established that all traits of temperament depend on the characteristics of a person’s higher nervous activity. He proved that among representatives of different temperaments, typological differences in the strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex change.

Various relationships between the indicated properties of nervous processes were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity.

Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition I.P. Pavlov identified four types of nervous system, which correspond to four temperaments:

8 pages, 3956 words

Types of human temperament

... factors, including the type of temperament of people. Temperament refers to individual psychological characteristics that characterize a person’s personality from the dynamics of his mental ... and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell. The weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated stimulation...

1. Sanguine - strong, balanced, agile.

2. Phlegmatic - strong, balanced, sedentary

3. Choleric - strong, unbalanced.

4. Melancholic - weak processes of excitation and inhibition.

Various relationships between the indicated properties of nervous processes were used as the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of processes... 1. Sanguine - strong, balanced, agile.

Methodology

Scientific research methods are techniques and tools that help obtain information necessary for constructing a scientific theory and drawing up practical recommendations. The development of science in any field directly depends on the perfection, reliability and validity of the methods it uses. All this is true in relation to psychology.

She studies complex, diverse and very difficult phenomena for scientific knowledge. Therefore, its successes throughout the entire period of development were directly dependent on the quality of the research methods used.

Since psychology is a relatively young science, it quite often relies on the methods of either more “mature” sciences, such as philosophy, history, physics, biology, mathematics, medicine, physiology, or resorts to the methods of more modern ones - computer science and cybernetics. At the same time, any independent science has methods unique to it, and psychology also has such methods. All methods of general psychology can be divided into three groups:

1. Subjective: various types of observation - standard, free, external, included, self-observation; surveys - oral, written, free, standard; two types of tests - task tests and questionnaire tests;
2. Objective: tests - projective and objective; experiments - natural and laboratory;
3. Modeling: logical, technical, mathematical, cybernetic.

There are also other methods for studying mental phenomena, such as conversation - as one of the options for questioning, which involves greater freedom in the procedure, or a method of studying documents and analyzing human activity. To increase the efficiency of studying psychic phenomena, the integrated use of various methods is recommended.

Psychological characteristics of people of different types of temperament

Sanguine is fast, agile, responds emotionally to all impressions; feelings are bright, but unstable and are easily replaced by opposite feelings. A sanguine person quickly establishes social contact. He is almost always the initiator in communication, immediately responds to the desire to communicate on the part of another person, but his attitude towards people can be changeable and fickle. He feels like a fish in water in a large company of strangers, and a new, unusual environment only excites him

Phlegmatic - slow, balanced and calm, who is not easily emotionally affected and cannot be enraged; his feelings hardly manifest themselves on the outside. In relationships with other people, they are calm and stable in their emotions. But under certain conditions, indifference to work, to the surrounding life, and lack of will may develop. The phlegmatic establishes social contacts slowly, shows little of his feelings and does not notice for a long time that someone is looking for a reason to get acquainted with him. But he is stable and constant in his attitude towards people. He loves to be in a narrow circle of old acquaintances, in familiar surroundings.

Choleric is fast, impetuous, with strong, flaming feelings that are clearly reflected in expressive facial expressions, gestures, and speech. He is often prone to violent emotional outbursts. Choleric people experience rapid mood swings and imbalance. Starting a business with enthusiasm, the choleric quickly cools down, interest in the work disappears, and he continues without inspiration, and sometimes even abandons it. People of choleric temperament can be difficult to communicate with.

A melancholic person does not respond emotionally to everything. He has a small variety of emotional experiences, but these experiences are distinguished by significant depth, strength and duration. He does not respond to everything, but when he does respond, he experiences it strongly, although he expresses little of his feelings outwardly. In a familiar, calm environment, people of this type work very productively and are distinguished by the depth and content of their emotional and moral behavior and attitude towards the people around them. Melancholic people are very touchy and have a hard time dealing with failures and insults. They are prone to isolation, loneliness, feel awkward in a new, unusual environment, and are often embarrassed.

In most cases, it is a combination of the characteristics of one temperament with the traits of another. Temperament type cannot be “good” or “bad”.

Phlegmatic - slow, balanced and calm, who is not easily emotionally offended and cannot be enraged; his feelings are almost in no way... Choleric - fast, impetuous, with strong, flaming feelings that... Melancholic - does not respond emotionally to everything. He has a small variety of emotional experiences, but...

The role of psychology in human life

The formation of human personality occurs already in childhood by absorbing information coming from the environment. Character is built under the influence of this knowledge. In accordance with the dominant character traits, the presence of desire, a person can cope with problems or succumb to them.

Self-control is an important factor in solving all problem situations. It is difficult to unbalance a person who is able to keep his emotions under control. He is aware of appropriate behavior in society and knows how to find the approach to people necessary to achieve the target result.

Human psychology in this regard is based on a number of rules. Compliance with them is a guarantee of success:

• understanding people;
• positive relationships with others, regardless of their social status;
• respect for the interests of others;
• accepting difficulties and overcoming them;
• defending your interests, regardless of the situation;
• leaving mistakes and failures in the past after learning from them;
• constant actions aimed at achieving success;
• lack of fear of new things and responsibility.

All people sometimes find themselves in situations that require certain actions that have not been taken before. Some begin to act immediately. Others despair. Still others are waiting for the “opportune” moment. An excellent reaction to a similar situation is due to individual personal characteristics, moral principles, education, and upbringing.

A morally unstable person gives in to danger because he does not know how to behave. Instead of taking action (eg running away), he loses clarity of thought, as a result of which he becomes vulnerable.

Successful solution of problems encountered in life requires preparation for them, strengthening of the will and psyche. Awareness in the field of psychology will help solve most of these problems. Psychological preparedness for difficult situations minimizes fear, supports an adequate response to an unusual situation, and the correctness of actions.

Diagnosis of temperament

The first group includes techniques based on the natural relationship between the properties of the human nervous system and his temperament. With their help, based on the study of individual properties of the human nervous system, one judges certain innate characteristics of his temperament, which are closely related precisely to these properties of the nervous system.

The second group consists of questionnaires that allow one to judge the properties of temperament by its practical actions and a person’s reactions to various life situations.

The third group includes various kinds of tests - questionnaires, projective, etc., which allow one to study in detail certain character traits of a person, giving them a detailed meaningful (qualitative) description and a quantitative assessment of the degree of their development.

Finally, the fourth group includes tests based on one or another theoretical idea of ​​personality structure. They usually contain many subscales that allow simultaneous assessment of various personal qualities included in the corresponding structure.

Experiments are also used to study temperament. Experimental technique developed by Yu.A. Samarin "Transfer of cubes"

The second group consists of questionnaires that allow one to judge the properties of temperament by its practical actions and a person’s reactions to... The third group of methods includes various kinds of tests - questionnaires, projective... Finally, the fourth group includes tests based on one or another theoretical picture of…

General psychology

Only in people can a person recognize himself.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

General psychology is a discipline that deals with the collection of general information about the human psyche through theoretical and experimental research. It identifies the most general methods of psychology and psychological patterns, and also explains its basic concepts. General psychology is an excellent entry point into the process of studying psychology and a good source of knowledge for a specialist psychologist, which allows him to improve his professional skills. Any science, if you start delving into it, begins to seem quite complex, but at the same time interesting. But before starting to delve into this or that science, a person needs to evaluate it based on superficial knowledge in order to understand what it can give him. I believe that in this regard, general psychology is an excellent appetizer for those who want to gain an appetite by engaging in in-depth study of psychology. In this article I will tell you about the most significant points of general psychology that are useful for you to know.

Introduction to General Psychology

So, the first thing we need to understand is that she studies general psychology. General psychology traditionally studies such mental processes as: thinking, memory, attention, emotions, motivation, sensations. She also examines such mental states as: sleep, wakefulness, frustration, mood, functional states, trance. And she also studies such mental properties as: character traits, temperament, orientation, intelligence, abilities. In general, general psychology collects knowledge about the most general laws of mental life, such as: psyche, personality, consciousness, activity, skills, knowledge, abilities, habits, higher nervous activity and many others. As you can see, these are all very important studies and patterns for our lives, which are useful to know as much as possible. It is also worth saying that general psychology collects data about the human psyche, both from various applied branches of psychology and from non-psychological sciences. These data can be used not only by psychologists, but also by other scientists interested in them, as well as anyone who is interested in psychology. It is worth noting that general psychology studies not only theory, it also deals with experimental research. Thus, with the help of this discipline one can gain useful and practical knowledge about the human psyche, thanks to which any person can solve various everyday problems and tasks.

For such related sciences as: philosophy, sociology, pedagogy, jurisprudence, physiology, linguistics, computer science, art history, general psychology is very important. She finds and explains the basic patterns both in human behavior and in the course and development of his mental processes. Theoretical research of general psychology includes the study of the history of this science, various psychological studies, problems, trends, as well as certain thematic sections of psychology. And the practical course includes mastering the methods of scientific research, practical psychological and pedagogical work. General psychology is largely theoretical psychology, and practical psychology is built on its basis - this is psychotherapy, applied psychology, psychology of personality development, as well as the psychology of normal life.

Methods of general psychology

In general psychology, as in most other sciences, a variety of methods are used to obtain various facts. Basic methods are: observations, conversation and experiments. Modifications of each of these methods can also be used to obtain better results. Let's take a closer look at each of these methods.

Observation is the relatively simplest and most ancient method of cognition. In its simplest form, this method represents everyday observations. Anyone can use it in their daily life. We can all observe people and draw certain conclusions based on our observations. In general psychology, there are several types of observation: short-term, long-term, continuous, selective and special. Long-term observation can take place over several years; you have probably heard about how some scientist observed some phenomenon for several years, after which he made certain conclusions. As for special observation, it can also be called participant observation, when the observer himself is immersed in the group he is studying.

The observation procedure consists of the following steps:

1. It is necessary to set a goal, a task. 2. It is necessary to determine the situation, subject and object of observation. 3. It is necessary to determine the method that will have the least impact on the object under study and will allow obtaining the necessary data. 4. It is necessary to determine how the data will be maintained. 5. At the end, it is necessary to process the received data.

There is external observation and introspection. External observation carried out by an outsider is called objective. It can be direct and indirect. Self-observation can be direct - carried out in the current moment, and delayed - it is based on memories, memoirs, diary entries, video and audio recordings, and so on. In this case, a person independently analyzes his thoughts, experiences, feelings, sensations. It is worth noting that for the other two methods - conversation and experiments, observation is an integral part of the study. It allows you to obtain the necessary data.

Conversation . With the help of a conversation, you can collect the necessary information about the person being examined and his activities. This can be done directly or indirectly, verbally or in writing. Thanks to this information, it is possible to determine the psychological phenomena characteristic of this person. To collect information about a person and his life, they use such types of conversations as: a conversation with the person himself, for example, through an interview, in which he answers questions prepared in advance for him, a conversation with people who know him, when they tell everything that know about this person, as well as the use of questionnaires and different types of questionnaires, when a person answers questions asked to him in writing.

The best results can be obtained through a personal conversation between the researcher and the person being examined. To do this, it is necessary, or at least desirable, to first think through the conversation, draw up a detailed plan for its conduct, identify the problems that need to be identified and solved, and what questions to ask the person being examined. In general, you need to prepare for the conversation. You should also not exclude questions from the person being examined, so if possible, you need to identify the most likely ones and prepare for them. Typically, a two-way conversation produces the best results and provides much more information for analysis than simply answering questions. The more open the conversation, the more a person can tell the researcher about himself and his life.

Experiment . This method involves the active intervention of the researcher in the process of activity of the person being examined to create certain conditions that will help identify a psychological fact. The experiment can be a laboratory one, in which special equipment is used and it takes place under special conditions. Under these conditions, the subject's actions are guided by intuition. A person may know that a psychological experiment is being conducted on him, but at the same time he may not be aware of the true meaning of this experiment unless he is informed about it. Some experiments can be carried out repeatedly on a whole group of people, this makes it possible to establish certain important patterns in the development of mental phenomena.

There is another method - tests. A person is given special tests to determine whether he has any mental qualities. The tests are short-term and similar tasks for all subjects, and based on the results of completing these tasks, the subjects are determined to have certain mental qualities, as well as their level of development. Tests are created in order to make certain predictions with their help or make a diagnosis. They should always be very reliable, have a scientific basis and reveal the most accurate characteristics.

There is also a genetic method. This method is based on observations and experiments, and is built on the results of these observations and experiments. And its essence lies in the study of the development of the psyche in order to reveal general psychological patterns.

It should be said that when using various methods, it is always necessary to take into account all the features of the problem being studied. Therefore, in some cases, along with the main methods described here, special auxiliary and intermediate techniques are used.

I recommend that everyone who is going to start studying human psychology read books on general psychology. They will help you get acquainted with this science in the most interesting way. I will not recommend specific books, because different books are suitable for different people, after all, everyone has a different basic level of development, and for some it is easier to understand one book and for others another. Look, look, read different books on general psychology - whichever one of them, as they say, will work, start studying it in detail. General psychology is an interesting science; it explains a lot in human behavior, helps us understand a lot, and allows us to learn a lot. With its help, you will learn to understand many important points for our daily life related to everything that we often encounter when interacting with other people, but which we do not always manage to understand. So don't waste time and effort studying it.

The “Tip” technique developed by V.A. Gorbachev.

The experiment “Transfer of cubes” is carried out in the form of a game. The idea is that the tested preschool children receive a small spatula, on which cubes are placed one on top of the other (3, 4, 5, etc. cubes).

The child must carry these cubes, holding a spatula in his right hand, from one table to another at a distance of 3 meters, then he must turn 180° (while continuing to hold the spatula in his hand), bring the cubes back, place the spatula with cubes on the table without dropping not a single cube.

The experimental game " Tip " has several variants. In the first, the teacher, in the presence of children, hides the tip of a fountain pen in his right or left hand. Children must unclench their fist to find it. After 30-45 seconds of “resistance,” the teacher-experimenter relaxes his hand and the children master the tip.

The second option is to study the mobility of the nervous system. There is no tip in the experimenter's hand. While the children are examining the fist, he puts the tip into the pocket of one of the children. When children discover that the tip is not in the teacher’s hand, you can invite them to guess who has it. The owner of the tip must try not to give himself away, and the children must determine who has the tip by their facial expression and behavior.

The experimental game "Tip" has several variants. In the first, the teacher, in the presence of children, hides it in his right or left hand... The second option is carried out to study the mobility of the nervous system...

Eysenck's Temperament Questionnaire

Questionnaire by Rusalova, Strelyau.

Leonhard-Shmishek (in children).

Observation of children 1-3 years old Lavrentieva and Titarenko.

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Everyday psychology

The concept of psychology has everyday and scientific meanings, and they differ significantly. Everyday psychology has specific knowledge, since it describes specific situations, tasks and specific people. Such knowledge is very approximate and vague. They form and accumulate spontaneously.

The method of obtaining them is random experience and its subjective interpretation, usually on an unconscious level. Knowledge of everyday psychology is usually transmitted with great difficulty. According to the domestic psychologist Yu. B. Gippenreiter, the eternal problem of “fathers and sons” is that children do not want to adopt the experience of their fathers.