Applied psychology: development, features and types

Applied psychology is often confused with practical psychology, but these are separate branches of science. When defining what applied psychology is, psychologists distinguish between the concepts of application of methods and implementation of methods. Applied psychology deals with the implementation and popularization of scientific achievements, an experimental approach to social spheres, mainly working with theoretical data. The practical one uses a complex of everyday and scientific approaches and is aimed at working with clients of any social group.

Features of applied psychology

In applied psychology of the 21st century there are three branches:

Test diagnostics. Diagnostics, as a research method, originated in 1884. F. Galton, the creator of the method, organized the measurement of physiological parameters of volunteers by passing a series of measurements - tests.
Psychology of work. Studies of working conditions began in the 20th century, in light industrial factories. Leading researchers were E. Claparède, G. Hall, G. Munstenberg.
Clinical psychology. Originated at the beginning of the 20th century. The scientific basis for the new industry was developed by L. Witmer and E. Kraepelin.

The application of this section of social sciences is diverse: solving diverse problems, improving approaches to the development of individual spheres of human activity. Typical tasks include:

diagnostics using tests;
studying the needs of social groups;
counseling, therapy;
forecasting options for the development of society;
development of reforms and social projects.

Forms of application of the industry include interpretation and intervention. The first deals with the analysis and characterization of factors, the second reveals the characteristics of psychological behavior, from education to direct assistance.

Suggestion method

The essence of this method is that the person being studied receives certain formulas, attitudes, positions, views that are beyond his conscious control. Suggestion can be verbal or emotional, during which the required state or point of view is formed. The means of suggestion do not play any special role; the main thing is to implement it.

In suggestion, confusion, distraction, intonation, and emotional imprinting are widely used. In the process of suggestion, everything happens by itself and the impact on each person occurs to varying degrees. There are several types of suggestions:

Direct. The influence comes through words - orders, commands;
Hidden or indirect - condemnation, approval, hint;
Intentional;
Unintentional;
Positive;
Negative.

Suggestion plays a huge role in psychotherapy and hypnotherapy, especially when a person is in a state of trance. Since childhood, suggestions have been a part of human life, because... used in the educational process.

Sections of science

The definition of a scientific field includes three related fields:

Clinical. She studies disorders: the history of development, forms and types of diseases, diagnostic and therapeutic methods, and preventive measures.
Organizational. Explores the professional characteristics of individual fields: medical, military, engineering, production.
Social. Studies the field of advertising and media. Affects the economy, leisure, ecology, culture.

The sections are closely intertwined and use the same information base, but their development is uneven.

Survey method

A fairly common technique in psychological research is the survey method. It is he who causes the most complaints. The criticism is that it is impossible to obtain reliable information directly from the responses of the subjects. But all such accusations are associated with absolute incompetence in the field of their implementation.

When using this method, the methodological problem lies in the design of the questionnaire

It is important that the questionnaire delivers the information needed by the hypothesis and that it is as reliable as possible

To construct each question, there are numerous rules, arranging them in a certain order, grouping them into separate blocks, etc. This is done so that the questionnaire does not require direct answers, and the content is understandable to the author, provided that a certain plan laid down in the program is carried out research.

Designing a questionnaire is a very complex and difficult job which should be done without any haste. An important question is how significant the proposed tasks and questions are for the individual.

It must be borne in mind that after conducting a mass survey of individuals in a group, all the problems of the group or individual will be clear; this is an illusion and the most common mistake.

Surveys in psychology can be used as an auxiliary research tool, and their data must be compared with data obtained using other methods. They are local in nature, because concern mainly one section of psychology - personality problems. There are few questionnaires for diagnosing the group, and the most widely used is the sociometric questionnaire.

Application organization

The organizational design of labor complexes is expressed in the following provisions:

Design is the basis of management. The key to the existence and development of a company is a project - a combination of ways to achieve a goal, methods for solving management problems, and means of labor optimization.
A project includes a goal. A goal is understood as a given general view of a developed company or a series of actions that should lead to its achievement.
Design is implemented jointly. For the correct implementation of the project, it is necessary to include all management segments at different levels. The more efficiently the subjects at lower levels work, the higher the overall performance.
Among the projects, typical ones stand out. These include projects that are implemented in various fields of activity. First of all, these are projects aimed at improving social working conditions, realizing staff capabilities, and meeting needs. In the 20th century, the priority of design was technical capabilities; modern science is engaged in adapting a technical system to a social one.

The basis of the project management scheme is the type of subordinate. D. McGregor identifies two leading types: X and Y.

Type X subordinate needs constant external supervision from the manager. He does not show initiative, is devoid of ambition and ambition. He works not because he strives for self-realization, but in order to avoid sanctions (fines and dismissal) and receive a reward (bonus). Therefore, the manager’s task is to direct and control the work process.

The Type U subordinate sees work as an opportunity for creative and personal fulfillment. He is ready to work independently, be creative, and strives to solve complex problems. Interest in the results of work does not allow him to work irresponsibly. The main task of a manager is to create an opportunity for his subordinate to realize his creative potential.

In Japan, which is focused on corporate work, there is a third type of subordinate - Kommersant. It is based on the high loyalty of employees to the company. Workers of this type tend to perceive work as the only and necessary opportunity for self-realization. Working for the benefit of society becomes the highest value for them, and being an employee of a certain company becomes a source of pride.

Reinforcement method

Reinforcement is nothing more than the researcher’s instant reaction, which can be positive or negative, to the actions of the subject. The reaction must really be instantaneous because the subject must immediately associate it with his action. A positive reaction is a sign that you should do or act in the same way in the future. With a negative reaction, the opposite is true.

The following types of reinforcement are distinguished:

Positive. Correct behavior is being reinforced;
Negative. Misbehavior is being prevented;
Conscious;
Unconscious;
Spontaneous, occurring by chance - electric shock, burn;
Intentional, i.e. conscious action;
One-time;
Systematic;
Direct;
Indirect;
Basic;
Secondary;
Full;
Partial.

Reinforcement, like suggestion, is also a huge part of a person’s life and in the process of education and the acquisition of human experience, it is present from a very early age.

Development of science

A study of the ways of development of science shows that among the forms of applied psychology, clinical psychology receives the greatest development. In the 21st century, according to US and European studies, more than 40% of specialists are engaged in the clinical sector. The second most popular area of activity is private consulting. Its pace of development suggests an imminent change in leadership positions and the introduction of private psychology into everyday practice.

Such indicators are associated with the relevance of requests - the psychological field of activity has become in demand under the influence of social changes. This is partly due to the political course aimed at meeting the individual needs of members of society, but to a greater extent - with the dissemination of information, and the subsequent increase in self-requests.

Psychological consultation

This is, as a rule, a one-time conversation between a psychologist and a client who finds himself in a difficult life situation. The specialist’s work begins immediately, because no special preparation is required; you can quickly understand the current situation and outline steps to achieve the desired result.

Psychological consultation has several stages:

Contact;
Request;
Plan;
Setting up for work;
Implementation;
Hometasks;
Completion.

The problems for which people seek advice from a psychologist are mainly the following:

Relationships – jealousy, difficulty communicating, raising children;
Individual problems – self-organization, health;
Work - dismissal, low wages, intolerance to criticism.

The help of a psychologist in such life situations can be a solution to many problems; you just need to seek help from a specialist in time.

PREFACE

As I worked on the prefaces to the first and second editions of this book, I was reminded of how angry my father was when he learned of my decision to pursue a doctorate at Harvard. He hit the kitchen table with his fist and said: “Virginia, you will get to the point where you will lose your human appearance, it will be impossible to talk to you!” He was afraid that I would bury myself under a pile of textbooks and lose touch with reality. I hope that the first two editions of this book serve as proof that even after such a long study, I can still talk to almost anyone and remain an active member of human society.

I also hope that this textbook is an example of a book that is closely related to life and even beneficial. A good textbook should not be aimed only at those already familiar with the subject. This textbook is intended for beginners who know very little about psychology or have never heard anything about this science. The book is written in a conversational style and is as easy to read as a newspaper or magazine article.

Students can enjoy reading and concentrate on the content without any of the stress that usually comes with studying obscure material.

The book presents basic information from the field of psychology and provides numerous examples of the widespread use of psychological knowledge in everyday life. Examples relate to areas of life such as work, school, consumer protection, community service, environmental protection, sports, mental health, human relations, forensic science, a variety of professional activities and many more. In order to arouse the reader's interest in psychology and emphasize its connection to life and significance, the book includes funny pictures and excerpts from newspaper and magazine publications. In this textbook, I wanted not only to fully present the traditional course of psychology and consider the main methods of research, but also to emphasize the practical benefits brought by psychology in order to captivate students with this subject and push them to further study it.

Psychologists have known for decades that students understand and remember more when they read actively than when they read passively. Psychologists also believe that exercise and feedback play a crucial role in successful learning. In the textbook “Applied Psychology” these psychological principles are put into practice. The result is a book that is not like a regular textbook, as it cannot be read passively. It is designed so that students can actually use it to write in the margins and take their own notes. For this purpose, each chapter has the following special sections.

• Applications. To demonstrate the relevance of psychological knowledge and illustrate its practical application, newspaper and magazine articles and other additional information are included in each chapter.

Survey method

When using this method, the methodological problem lies in the design of the questionnaire

It is important that the questionnaire delivers the information needed by the hypothesis and that it is as reliable as possible

Designing a questionnaire is a very complex and difficult job which should be done without any haste. An important question is how significant the proposed tasks and questions are for the individual.

It must be borne in mind that after conducting a mass survey of individuals in a group, all the problems of the group or individual will be clear; this is an illusion and the most common mistake.

Social change

Psychologists have been used to promote "green" behavior, i.e. sustainable development. In this case, their goal is to change behavior through strategies such as social marketing. Tactics include education, spreading information, organizing social movements, passing laws, and changing taxes to influence decisions.

Psychology has been applied on a global scale for the purpose of population control. For example, one strategy for television programs combines social models in a soap opera with information messages during commercials. This strategy successfully increased coverage of women in family planning clinics in Mexico. Programming that has been rolled out around the world at Population Communications International and Population Media Center combines family planning messages with messages about women's education and literacy.

Human factors and ergonomics

Human Factors and Ergonomics (HF&E) is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes influence our interactions with tools, machines, and objects in the environment. Many branches of psychology attempt to create models and understand human behavior. These models are usually based on data collected from experiments. Human factors psychologists, however, take the same data and use it to develop or adapt processes and facilities that complement the human side of the equation. Rather than people learning to use and manipulate a piece of technology, human factors tends to develop technologies to be consistent with models of human behavior developed by general psychology. This may be taking into account human physical limitations, as in ergonomics, or the design of systems, especially computer systems, that work intuitively with people, as in engineering psychology.

Ergonomics is applied mainly through office work and in the transportation industry

Psychologists here take into account the physical limitations of the human body and try to reduce fatigue and stress by developing products and systems that work within the natural limitations of the human body. From simple things such as the size of buttons and the design of office chairs to the layout of airplane cabins, human factors psychologists specializing in ergonomics are attempting to relieve the stress of our daily lives, and sometimes even save them.

Human factor psychologists specializing in engineering psychology tend to take on slightly different projects than their ergonomically focused colleagues. These psychologists look at how a person and the process of interaction. Often engineering psychology can focus on computers. However, at a basic level, a process is simply a series of inputs and outputs between a person and a machine. A person must have a clear method for inputting data and be able to easily access the information output. Failure to make quick and accurate adjustments can sometimes lead to dire consequences, as many stories add up to the Phaser Stun Set. Engineering psychologists want to make the process of inputs and outputs as intuitive as possible for the user.

The goal of human factors research is to understand the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior, and the design elements and systems that will interact in accordance with the constraints. Some may see human factors as intuitive or a list of taboos and rules of behavior, but in fact, human factors research seeks to make sense of large piles of data to bring precise applications to designs and product systems to help people work in a more natural, intuitive way. details from their environment.

Health and medicine

Health psychology concerns itself with an understanding of how biology, behavior, and social context influence health and disease. Health psychologists typically work alongside other health professionals in clinical settings, although many also teach and conduct research. Although its early beginnings can be attributed to the related field of clinical psychology, four different approaches to health psychology have been identified: clinical, public health, community, and critical health psychology.

Health psychologists aim to change health behavior with the dual goals of helping people stay healthy and helping patients comply with disease treatment regimens. The focus of health psychologists tends to be on the health crisis facing the Western world, especially the United States. Cognitive behavioral therapy and behavior modification are techniques often used by health psychologists. Psychologists also study patients' compliance with their doctors' orders.

Health psychologists view a person's mental state as largely related to their physical state. An important concept in this field is stress, a mental phenomenon with known consequences for physical health.

medical

Medical psychology involves the application of a number of psychological principles, theories and findings applied to the effective management of physical and mental disorders, to improve the psychological and physical health of the patient. The American Psychological Association (APA) defines medical psychology as the branch of psychology that integrates somatic and psychotherapeutic modalities, in the management of mental illness, recovery, and emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and substance abuse disorders. According to Muse and Moore (2012), the clinical psychologist's contribution to the field of psychopharmacology is what distinguishes him from other psychotherapists and psychotherpists.

Professional health psychology

Hygiene psychology (OHP) is a relatively new discipline that has emerged from the merger of health psychology, industrial and organizational psychology and occupational health. OHP has its own journals and professional organizations. The field is concerned with identifying the psychological characteristics of workplaces that lead to health-related problems in people who work. These problems may include physical health (eg, cardiovascular disease) or mental health (eg, depression). Examples of psychological characteristics of jobs that OHP have studied include the number of decisions, the breadth a worker can make and the amount of supervision it takes. OHP also develops and implements interventions that can prevent or mitigate work-related health problems

Additionally, OHP research is essential to the economic success of organizations. Other areas of research of interest to ONR include workplace incivility and violence, work-home dislocation, unemployment and retrenchment, and workplace safety and accident prevention

Two important OHP journals are the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology and Occupational and Stress Psychology. Three important organizations closely associated with the OHP are the International Commission on Hygiene, the Scientific Committee on Work Organization and Psychosocial Factors (ICOH-P), the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, and the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Virginia Nichols Quinn has taught psychology at Northern Virginia Community College for over twenty years. She received her bachelor's degree from Hunter College, where she majored in psychology and also studied mathematics and education. She then continued her education at Harvard University, where she received a master's degree and a doctorate in psychometrics. She has extensive professional experience in the field of applied psychology: she has worked as a teacher at a school for “difficult” children, a consultant to the US Department of Defense on issues related to decision making and problem solving, and the chief psychologist of a children's rehabilitation center. In addition, her background in psychology helps her in her daily life; she successfully led the mayoral campaign for Round Hill, Virginia, and serves on several school boards and curriculum planning commissions. She considers one of her main tasks to teach psychology so that this science becomes understandable and brings practical benefits to students. Virginia Nichols Quinn is the author of a large number of textbooks and collections of test items for psychology textbooks.

List of used literature

Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. – M., 1996.
Galperin P.Ya. Introduction to Psychology. – Rostov-on-Don, 1999.
Klimov E.A. Basics of psychology. – M., 1997.
Morozov A.V. Business psychology. – St. Petersburg, 2000.
Nemov R.S. Psychology: In 3 books. - Book 1. – M., 2001.
Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology. – M., 2001.
Psychology / Ed. V.N. Druzhinina. – St. Petersburg, 2000.
Psychology / Ed. A.A. Krylova. – M., 1999.
Stolyarenko L.D. Basics of psychology. – Rostov-on-Don, 1997.

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