Projection is... Definition of the concept, types, mechanism

Concept of projection

So, there are several basic meanings of this term. In classical psychoanalysis, the legacy of Freud, projection is a defense mechanism that indicates the presence of a certain conflict in the human psyche, which is in a depressed state. During the operation of this mechanism, a person attributes his emotions, feelings and thoughts to others. At the same time, he denies the fact that these are actually his own feelings. So, before an important report, a person may worry and think about the audience, “I am unpleasant to them,” although in fact people do not experience negative emotions towards the speaker. He himself shifts his unpleasant feelings onto them. Thus, a person perceives his own emotions and thoughts as something coming to him from the outside, to which he has nothing to do and cannot influence it.

Accordingly, in the understanding of psychoanalysts, such projection of various manifestations of one’s psyche onto others is one of the indicators of neurosis (the cause of neurosis, in turn, is internal conflicts between the conscious and unconscious components of the psyche).

On the other hand, in some psychological theories, projection is a natural mechanism inherent in the human psyche from the beginning. Thus, projection is seen not only as a manifestation of neurosis, but also as a normal process.

Application area

The regulatory act in this area is GOST 2.305-2008.

The document describes in detail the acceptable methods for designating views in drawings, as well as additional ways to present information about a part: sections and sections. It also regulates the location of extension elements and permitted methods for simplifying drawings.

The preferred method for depicting three-dimensional products on a plane is orthogonal projection. The location of the depicted object is assumed to be between the conventional observer and the projection plane. To improve the readability of the image, a simplified approach is permitted. Therefore, the images in the drawings are not projection in the strict geometric sense of the word. They are called images on a plane. To obtain the main projections, the depicted part is placed in the center of an imaginary cube. Its edges will serve as projection planes.

As a result of the projection of the image of the object, a diagram of the main types of the product appears:

In technical drawing, the front view is considered the main one. It should give maximum information about the depicted detail. It is complemented by views from the left and from above (relative to the main one). These three types are called the main ones. The rest are considered auxiliary. Their images are constructed if important design information about a product of complex shape is not visible in the three main views.

In addition, to explain the structure of part of the part, local views are used, showing a fragment of the image of the main view. Such images are placed in unoccupied areas, inscribed in capital letters of the Cyrillic alphabet. On the main view, in the area where the fragment is located, there is an arrow showing the direction of the conditional view, as a result of which the local view appears. Such designs are limited by break lines drawn in the direction of the minimum element size.

In addition, additional types are used. They are built on planes placed at an angle to the main faces of the projection cube. They help to illustrate the location and structure of those parts of the object that are not visible or are not sufficiently presented in the main views, or their dimensions and configuration are distorted. The designation of additional species is carried out using letters of the Cyrillic alphabet.

A thoughtful choice of local and additional views allows you to reduce the number of hatches when showing the internal structure of a part that is invisible on the main projections. The readability of the drawing, the relative position of its parts also improves, and the likelihood of its erroneous interpretation is reduced.

Negative manifestation of projection

However, in most cases, projection in psychology is considered a defense mechanism that exists in order to protect a person from various shadow, repressed, hidden aspects of his personality. As a result of this mechanism, a person may not feel responsible for the feelings and thoughts that he unconsciously attributes to others. It would seem that this is an effective and reliable option for protection, but its negative result is that a person begins to try in some way to correct the object on which he is projecting his emotions, or to get rid of it altogether, just so as not to see and feel these emotions . Moreover, in reality, the object may have absolutely nothing to do with the emotions or thoughts of the individual who is actively projecting them.

For example, people often do not see their own shortcomings, although they notice them in others with amazing attention. A greedy person can see only greed and stinginess everywhere; one prone to theft will believe that everyone around him is nothing but thieves and crooks. Good advice from psychologists works here: to understand your shortcomings, you should take a closer look at what you criticize the people around you for. Interestingly, the same mechanism works in the case of positive character traits, which we also often do not notice in ourselves.

Parallax (multi-layer) scrolling[edit]

(link)

Who hasn't played Aladdin on Sega? Pay attention to the dunes and clouds in the background - this is one layer, but with scrolling

Parallax is the apparent displacement of objects relative to each other when the viewer moves. The most impressive parallax will be if you look from the window of a bus or train. Our next method models this phenomenon.

Parallax scrolling is not complicated; this method has been mastered by animators. We take several layers (all except the bottom one - with transparent “holes”) and move them at different speeds, we get a good illusion of perspective. The layers themselves are rarely made perspective - usually in one of the parallel projections.

The Super Nintendo (aka SNES) allowed up to four layers, the Sega Megadrive (aka Sega Genesis) only two, but could independently scroll background stripes[6]. On PCs, multi-layer scrolling is possible starting with 386 machines[7]. Of the JavaME phones (at the time of their maximum distribution, the mid-2000s), only the fastest ones supported multi-layer scrolling[8].

In quests from Daedalic Entertainment ( The Whispered World

,
Deponia
) there may be more than a dozen such layers. True, this is already the 2000s...

In 3D, parallax is obtained automatically. However, in order not to draw a lot of distant objects, they use the so-called skybox - a large backdrop, inactive compared to all other game objects. Old FPS like Doom

filled the screen with a special texture when the engine hit the “sky” walls. In modern games, the skybox is a very distant but existing backdrop in the geometry of the levels.

Positive manifestation of projection

However, projection is also the same mechanism that underlies empathy, which allows you to consciously and controlled experience the emotional state of another person. Naturally, a person cannot directly feel the same as his interlocutor, but he can react to various manifestations of the other’s experiences. This is where the projection mechanism in the individual’s psychology comes into play: he feels the feelings of another in the same way as if he were experiencing them himself. However, in most cases we are aware that these feelings come to us as if from the outside.

It is this mechanism that allows us to understand each other, thereby improving our relationships with friends and family.

Projection on animals

We all know situations when it seems that completely human emotions are written on the face of a cat or puppy. What’s interesting is that different people in the same situation can attribute directly opposite feelings to a cat, which the animal, of course, does not actually experience. This is proof of the operation of the projection mechanism, when we personify, “humanize” various objects of living and inanimate nature. Expressions like “loyal dog” or “furious wind” do not reflect the actual qualities of the objects being described. They only talk about our emotions, our perception of them.

Content

• 1 Parallel projections (2D) 1.1 Orthogonal 1.1.1 Flat
• 1.1.2 "Three Quarters"
• 1.1.3 Isometric
• 1.1.4 Other axonometric

Pathological manifestations of projections

The above described phenomena that accompany a person in everyday life almost constantly. Psychologists say that such a defense mechanism most often works in rather vulnerable and anxious people. However, projections can occur in various mental disorders, such as paranoia, phobia or mania. In these cases, projections can become aggravated, lead to more or less strong manifestations of delirium, a person can hallucinate, and cannot distinguish reality from the manifestations of his psyche.

Thus, a paranoid person, obsessed with a certain idea, becomes unable to perceive responsibility for his life, for his desires and emotions. He most often shifts this responsibility onto the shoulders of his immediate circle or some mysterious enemies who ruin his life. He becomes very aggressive and although he claims that he is being persecuted, he is rather ready to persecute someone himself.

Projections do not always manifest themselves in such drastic situations, but most often they interfere with the lives of neurotics who, in one way or another, shift responsibility to others. A person in such a situation becomes a victim of his own projections and, instead of actively managing his life, passively submits to the will of circumstances.

Projection in creativity

This mechanism works very well for writers who need to write the most lively and believable character possible. To do this, the author literally becomes him, gets used to his role. But unlike projection in ordinary life, the writer firmly separates himself and his work. He remembers exactly where the border between him and his characters lies, even if in the process of work he got used to it so much that the creative world seemed like a real world.

Types of projections

In psychology, there are several types of projections.

• Attributive. This is the most familiar type of projection. It works when an individual attributes his thoughts and feelings to other people.
• Autistic. In this case, a person's needs and motives determine how he sees objects and other people.
• Rational. Here a person prefers to transfer responsibility for his failures to other people rather than admit his mistakes and shortcomings.
• Complementary. The individual in this case considers himself a leader, a strong person, in contrast to other people, who, he believes, are weak and helpless.

Treatise on the non-square pixel[edit]

It has been said many times above: the pixel is not square, it must be elongated (or, conversely, flattened) vertically. Why is this so? In short: TV-oriented and text-oriented.

Let's look at several machines that were common at that time (proportion =1 - square pixel, >1 - standing pixel, <1 - recumbent).[9]

In PAL and SÉCAM machines there are about 256 lines, in NTSC - starting from 200: one line of pixels is two television scan lines. The horizontal resolution is as much as the technology can handle, usually less, which is why the pixel is recumbent. Sega with a square pixel looks like a “monster” compared to other machines. In addition, the TV has interlaced scan and pixel toning will blaze like hell - therefore, full television resolution was released only when truecolor modes made these “delights” unnecessary (PlayStation, 1995).

Computers have to work with text, so horizontal resolution is more important than vertical resolution - which means standing pixels. True, monitors can freely rearrange the scan and therefore are not tied to 200 (or 256) lines. In large fonts (for example, in 8px wide text mode fonts), the vertical strokes were made to be two pixels.

But what about the Macintosh, which clearly stands out from our table? It has a normal kinescope, 4:3. But he deliberately did not use the full area of ​​the tube so that the pixel was exactly square and the density was 72 pixels per inch - for the convenience of desktop publishing. Subsequently, the binding to 72 ppi[12] hit Apple hard (in Windows, for example, 96 ppi is accepted, but not so strictly[13]) - but this is already the mid-1990s.[14].

Technical digression.

Scanning is the process of controlling the electron beam of a receiving television tube (kinescope). The beam passes line by line across the entire screen, building an image. Scanning can be progressive, or progressive (every frame, all lines are scanned one after another), and interlaced (the first half-frame is scanned by lines 1, 3, 5, 7, etc., the second half-frame is 2, 4, 6, 8...).

Rear projection

In addition, there are two more types: forward and backward projection in psychology. Accordingly, if in the case of direct projection a person attributes to others certain, most often negative, qualities that he himself possesses, then in the case of the reverse version everything is different. The individual begins to attribute to himself those thoughts and qualities that he would really like to possess. Thus, the husband of an artist can also consider himself an artist, even if he has no talents.

Thus, projection is one of many psychological defense mechanisms that, depending on the situation and the ability to introspect, can either cause us great harm or improve our mutual understanding with other people.