It's no secret that a person's success is not only luck in life and the strength of his character. The determining factor in many matters is his relationships with others. And communication skills are the key to good relationships. A person’s success in both personal and professional spheres depends on how developed they are.
Communication skills
Communication abilities are the skills and abilities to communicate with other people with and without words: through facial expressions, gestures, body language and image. This includes both sending signals correctly and receiving them correctly.
Effective communication skills are the foundation for success in almost all areas of life. If they have developed harmoniously throughout life, they will become the key to establishing all interpersonal relationships, both personal and business.
Types of communications
Organizational communications are a set of communications built on the basis of communication mediated by information about the organization itself, its goals and objectives.
External communications are communications between the organization and the environment. External environmental factors greatly influence the activities of an organization. The communication needs of the organization depend on these factors.
Internal communications are communications within an organization between different levels and departments.
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Formal communications are communications that are determined by the organizational structure of the enterprise, the relationship of management levels and functional departments. The more management levels, the higher the likelihood of information distortion, since each management level can correct and filter messages.
Vertical - Information moves within an organization from level to level as part of vertical communications. It can be transmitted downward, that is, from higher levels to lower ones. The most obvious component of vertical communication in an organization is the relationship between manager and subordinate.
Horizontal communications (between departments) are communications between different departments of the organization. In addition to sharing information downward or upward, organizations need horizontal communications. An organization consists of many departments, so the exchange of information between them is necessary to coordinate tasks and actions. Because an organization is a system of interrelated elements, management must ensure that specialized elements work together to move the organization in the desired direction.
Informal communications . The channel of informal communications can be called a channel for spreading rumors. Since information is transmitted much faster through rumor channels than through formal communication channels, managers use the former for planned leaks and dissemination of certain information or information of the “just between us” type. The reputation of inaccurate information attributed to rumors continues to this day.
Interpersonal communications are oral communication between people in one of the listed types. The nature of interpersonal relations differs significantly from the nature of social relations, since their most important specific feature is their emotional basis. Therefore, interpersonal relationships can be considered as a factor in the psychological climate of the group. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships means that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that arise in people towards each other.
Downward communication (manager-subordinates).
Communication between the manager and subordinates is associated with clarifying tasks, priorities and expected results; ensuring involvement in solving department problems; with a discussion of work efficiency problems; achieving recognition and rewards for the purpose of motivation; improving and developing the abilities of subordinates; with collecting information about an emerging or real-life problem; notifying a subordinate about an upcoming change; and receiving information about ideas, improvements and suggestions.
Bottom-up (bottom-up) communication
Upward communication serves the function of alerting the organization's management about what is being done at lower levels. In this way, management learns about current or emerging problems and suggests possible options for correcting the situation. Upward exchange of information usually occurs in the form of reports, proposals and explanatory notes.
Personal communication abilities: psychology and period of development
Communication abilities begin to develop in a person almost immediately after birth. It is believed that the sooner a baby learns to talk, the easier it will be for him to interact with the people around him.
An individual’s communication abilities are formed strictly individually. There are quite a lot of factors influencing their development: these include relationships with parents and relatives, later with peers, with colleagues and management. In addition, the general social role of a person in society is also important.
Communication skills are... Definition and characteristics
If in childhood a person did not receive proper understanding and support from his family, which did not allow him to gain experience in communication, he may become unconfident and withdrawn. That is, his communication skills will be at a low level. How to get out of this situation? Develop communication skills. However, before you figure out how to act in such a situation, you need to understand the structure of communication.
Personal communication abilities, the characteristics of which are presented below, include the following types.
- Regulatory-communicative: the ability to help a person in a difficult situation, as well as accept someone else’s help when you yourself find yourself in a difficult situation. In addition, this type is responsible for the ability to resolve emerging conflicts using adequate methods.
- Affective-communicative: the ability to notice the emotional states of others, as well as to respond to them in a timely and correct manner. In addition, this type is responsible for showing responsiveness and respect for the interlocutor.
- Information and communication skills: the ability to start, maintain and end a conversation. In addition, this ability helps to attract the attention of the interlocutor using both verbal and non-verbal means of communication.
What is intelligence
Intelligence is the ability to recognize new situations, learn, understand and apply abstract concepts in life (see individual properties of objects and phenomena), use one’s knowledge in accordance with the requirements of the environment.
In the Big Psychological Dictionary the word means (English intelligence; from Latin intellectus - understanding, knowledge)
- general ability to cognition and problem solving, which determines the success of any activity and underlies other abilities;
- the system of all cognitive abilities of an individual: sensation, perception, memory, representation, thinking, imagination;
- ability to solve problems without trial and error “in the head.”
Listen more
Communication abilities of an individual are the ability to competently establish interaction with a person. Is it possible to do this without listening to the other person? Hardly.
This may be the most underrated communication skill. People tend to be self-centered and selfish. Many of them are accustomed to talking exclusively about themselves, everywhere and always. Such people do not hear or listen to their interlocutor: they wait for him to finish speaking so that they can start speaking again. Is it possible to overcome this bad habit?
The best way is to forget about yourself at least for a while. Focus your attention in a conversation on what others are talking about, and not on your “I” or internal dialogue. Think less about your loved one and more about the interlocutor with whom you are talking and listening.
In addition, listening carefully to the other person will help you determine the best way to continue the dialogue. You should ask questions that invite extended answers rather than simple “yes” and “no.” This will help make the conversation more interesting and meaningful.
Diagnostics and testing
It is customary to assess a person’s intelligence using various methods:
- Cattell's Intelligence Test. The questionnaire consists of 862 questions on various topics (personality, character, temperament, work, business, etc.).
- Guilford Social Intelligence Test. Makes it possible to assess a person’s communication skills and adaptability. Most questions are presented in the form of pictures.
- Wechsler test. The author of the test believed that it was worth moving away from the standard understanding of intelligence. There are many more factors that influence a person's intelligence. It is considered one of the most famous and used.
- Raven's progressive matrices test. Measures logical thinking and a person’s ability to process information.
- Amthauer Structure of Intelligence Test. Intelligence is measured as a set of psychological characteristics of a person. Consists of several parts and is devoted to different aspects of thinking. The purpose of the test is to determine the ability to create combinations, counting abilities, and the ability to concentrate on a goal.
- Bennett Test of Mechanical Comprehension. Evaluates a person’s level of technical preparedness, his ability to learn, and spatial thinking. 30 minutes are allotted for testing.
IQ
Intelligence quotient is the famous IQ, which today is most often detected using the Eysenck test. Used in schools, universities, and when applying for jobs. Allows you to identify a comprehensive assessment of mental development. The test subject will have to solve 40 tasks, the complexity of which gradually increases.
Work on your acting skills
Communication abilities are, in turn, a wealth of different intonations and gestures. This is what characterizes people as representatives of society. A sociable person is an excellent storyteller and imitator, who has a taste for juicy detail, for details. He prefers variety in life, since it is easy for such a person to move from one social role to another, in addition, he easily adapts to any situation. Such people have charm and know how to please.
When communicating, use not only words, but also non-verbal means of communication
Compared to body language, words are a negligible part of communication.
Psychologists say that through nonverbal means - tone, intonation, body language and facial expressions - a person conveys about 90% of the entire message. If you become more proficient in these aspects, it will become easier for you to convey your message to your interlocutor.
For example, you can learn to speak more emotionally. To emphasize your interest in what the interlocutor is talking about, you can lean slightly in his direction and look into his eyes. If you are positive and open, it will show in your facial expressions and gestures.
Pay attention to your body movements and tone of voice when communicating with others, and adjust them if necessary.
Show genuine interest in the person you are talking to
When you show sincere interest in your interlocutor, you completely involuntarily begin to listen to him more carefully, trying to understand what he is thinking and feeling. That is, this will help you determine what really interests him.
When you listen to your interlocutor and show interest in his person, you can easily discover that he is not as different from you or as boring as he seemed to you when you met.
Additionally, people will feel more comfortable if they see your interest and attention in them, which will benefit the conversation.
What factors influence mental abilities?
High intelligence is not always given by nature. Intelligence is influenced by many external factors.
Heredity and the structure of the brain affect a person’s thinking and intellectual arsenal. For example, the processing of information depends on how efficiently the frontal lobes work.
The child's intelligence is influenced by how the mother ate during pregnancy. If the mother ate properly and avoided bad habits, then with an increased probability she will give birth to an intelligent person.
If parents have the talent of education, then they will grow up an intellectually developed child. He will be interested in new knowledge, show interest, and study diligently.
Research shows that children who do not have siblings are more intellectually developed than children from large families. This is due to the fact that parents pay much more attention to one child and invest more in him than in several children.
If a child suffers from diseases such as Down syndrome or phenylketonuria, or has other developmental features, then the likelihood of intellectual retardation increases.
Age differences
The foundation of intelligence is laid between 5 and 7 years. Its full potential is revealed closer to the age of 20. But even after 20 years, intelligence can develop, but at a much slower pace.
A person’s mathematical abilities develop at the age of 30-35. If by this time he had not achieved significant success in mathematics, then now he is unlikely to achieve it.
Doctors and scientists in the natural sciences demonstrate their peak intelligence at 42-45 years of age.
Psychologists and philosophers reach their full potential closer to 50-55 years of age.
But there are also abilities that develop throughout life and can manifest themselves even in old age. These are artistic abilities that relate to different areas of art (dancing, painting, singing, acting).
Do intellectual abilities decline in older people?
Elderly people are susceptible to senile diseases that negatively affect the brain (sclerosis, dementia, senile dementia). But if you engage in your intellectual development, then you can maintain a lively and inquisitive mind until old age.
Gender differences
The intellectual differences between men and women have always been a subject of heated debate and discussion. Since ancient times, it was believed that women are less developed than men.
Laws and traditions did not allow women to engage in many activities, including intellectual ones. Because of this, the myth began that women are less developed in this regard than men. This practice also exists in countries where women are in a degraded position. Her intelligence is indeed lower, but the reason is banal - lack of opportunity to learn.
However, studies have shown that men's brains are no better than women's. Women are better able to understand some types of intellectual activity than men.
That is, differences in brain structure between men and women do not determine the degree of intelligence. Both a woman and a man can do the same job equally successfully.
Just because a man's brain weighs more does not make his intelligence sharper. Elevated hormone levels also have an ambiguous effect on intelligence; it can reduce or increase it.
Speaking abstractly, a man who has good intelligence is no different from a developed woman.
What do you think about the differences in intelligence between men and women? Share your thoughts in the comments.
Be understanding about criticism
The ancient Greek philosopher Epictetus advised listening to criticism. If a person senses a grain of truth in it, then it is worth thinking about how to improve.
However, it should be remembered that in the vast majority of cases criticism is a reflection of the emotional state and mood of the critic. Perhaps he was having a bad day. Maybe your pet or child is sick. Perhaps your interlocutor is angry with someone or is jealous of you. Because people are often focused on themselves and their experiences, it is very easy to draw the wrong conclusion.
Remember that the world does not revolve around you. Realize that people think very little about you, about your actions and mood. This knowledge can make your life much easier. Thus, the problem that is associated with the fear of taking the wrong step and saying something wrong (and this supposedly will somehow affect the opinions of others about you) turns into a small obstacle.
The concept of communicative and organizational abilities and approaches to their study in psychology
Ekaterina Arkhipova
The concept of communicative and organizational abilities and approaches to their study in psychology
The concept of communication and organizational skills
and approaches to their study in psychology
The process of emergence and development of communicative activity actively occurs in the first seven years of a child’s life. The most important idea of the Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky in this regard is that the source of mental development is not in the inner world of the child, but in his relationships with significant adults [6[6]/p>
The study of a child’s communicative and organizational abilities is presented in the works of L. S. Vygotsky [6[6]M. I. Lisina [2[24]D. B. Elkonina [4[40] others.
In domestic science, the study of the problem of organizational abilities in line with the theory of leadership began in the 1920-1930s. The research took place on the material of children's groups (both specially organized and spontaneously created). These studies studied the functionality of a leader in a group of children, how exactly a child becomes a leader, and what types of leaders there are. Studies of the last century generally described the socio-political situation in society. Then came a period of prolonged stagnation in the study of leadership , after which domestic psychologists returned to the study of this problem only in the 1960s [2[21]/p>
Regarding the formation of communicative abilities , L. S. Vygotsky emphasized that the world around him should not confront the child, rebuild his nature, but, on the contrary, should be a harmonious condition for his development. The child is not able to develop outside of society, since he is initially included in social relations; Moreover, the younger the child’s age, the more he depends on the attitude of the people around him [6[6]/p>
M. I. Lisina introduced a new area into Russian psychology - communication between a child and an adult, considering this interaction as the basis for the formation of communicative and organizational abilities in line with ontogenesis [2[24]/p>
Under the leadership of M. I. Lisina, experimental studies of communication between children and adults were carried out in the context of the influence of this interaction on the development of the child’s psyche , which continues the development of the traditions of L. S. Vygotsky [2[24]/p>
The style of relationships between parents and children is not only a means of communication, but also a method of relationship education. The child will relate to the world around him in the same way as he saw it in his family - he will see the world as safe or unsafe, friendly or aggressive. In this way, the child develops a basic trust/distrust in the world, on the basis of which communication and organizational abilities in later life.
Confidential communication contributes to the formation of a child’s positive self-concept, self-acceptance and recognition of the value of his “I”
.
Thanks to adequate parental attitude, the child learns to understand his feelings and needs, developing the ability to voluntarily control his emotional state and behavior.
According to V. M. Tseluiko, child-parent relationships can be determined by the following parameters [3[38]/p>
– the nature of the emotional connection: on the part of the parent – emotional acceptance of the child (parental love, on the part of the child – attachment and emotional attitude towards the parent. A feature of child-parent relationships, compared to other types of interpersonal interaction, is a high degree of significance for both the child and for the parent;
– style of parental interaction with the child, features of interpersonal contact.
Parents act as a source of emotional warmth, support, and protection for the child. This is power, the highest authority, stewards of benefits, and a model, an example to follow. Based on this, it is important to create a favorable psychological atmosphere in the family - the key to the physical and spiritual health of the child’s personality [1[18]/p>
Parents interested in successfully raising their child choose an authoritative parenting style (sufficient level of control, warm relationship with children)
. Authoritative parents are open to communication and discussion with children about established rules of behavior; allow changes in their requirements within reasonable limits; children are well adapted; self-confident; they have developed self-control and social skills; they are characterized by adequate self-esteem and good performance at school [1[10]/p>
N. E. Zhidkova identifies three strategies for interaction between parents and children in families [1[15]/p>
– emotional punishment;
– assertion of strength;
– clarification.
methods as punishment for misconduct : do not talk to the child, use irony, mock the mistakes and weaknesses of their son/daughter, declare their rejection, demonstrate dislike with their behavior, deliberately speak dryly to the child, remove him from themselves, do not give the opportunity to establish tactile contact with themselves, stimulate the child to feel guilty.Emotional punishment sometimes turns out to be very “effective”
: parents manage to achieve the desired changes in the child’s behavior, but such behavior is very dangerous, because its effectiveness is based on the child’s fear of losing the love of the most important people in the world - his parents. As a result, the child develops anxiety and dependence);
2) assertion of power (includes such actions of parents as physical punishment; deprivation of pleasure; restriction of material goods familiar to the child; verbal expression of threat. This strategy usually also quickly produces results. It would seem that with such minimal means, the child’s desired behavior is achieved and comfort of the parents, but fear of punishment forces the child to change his behavior. This means that his actions are not caused by awareness of his action (that is, not by internal reasons, but mainly by external conditions. These features of the parental style of education lead to a delay in the moral development of the child. Thus , the comfort of parents obtained by the method of asserting strength can hardly be justified by the consequences that it carries for the development of the child);
3) explanation (this strategy is softer than previous methods , and accordingly, its educational result does not manifest itself so quickly and is not always the same. Parents use this strategy in the case of a calm explanation to the child of the consequences of his actions, the characteristics of behavior in society; they try to convey up to the child, the need to comply with social norms and rules. The advantages of this strategy are obvious: a good relationship between parents and the child, even if disciplinary difficulties arise; timely development of the child’s conscience as a regulator of behavior; the child’s desire to grow up, his acceptance of the views of his parents) [1[15] /p>
It should be noted that the clarification strategy requires special pedagogical abilities . After all, in order to explain to a child the causes and consequences of his behavior, patience and the ability to understand the child’s condition and the reasons for his actions are required; the ability to express one’s thoughts in a manner accessible to the child’s age; knowledge of the individual characteristics of the son/daughter and the ability to use them (for example, creating a particular motivation for behavior in the child)
.
E. G. Eidemiller, V. V. Justitskis compiled a list of stable types of inharmonious upbringing that contribute to the occurrence of violations of communicative behavior in his later life [3[39]/p>
1. Conniving hyperprotection (parents do as much as possible for the child what he can already do himself, and therefore the child grows up demonstrative and demanding).
2. Dominant hyperprotection (parents also devote a lot of time to the child, but at the same time they set numerous restrictions and prohibitions, suppressing his activity and independence; the child can grow up either anxious-fearful, asthenic, or aggressive).
3. Emotional rejection (parents show with all their appearance that the child is bothering them; they establish an emotional distance, are cold towards the child, as a result of which he feels abandoned, abandoned, then emotional lability and self-doubt can easily manifest themselves in his life , feeling of being useless to the world).
4. Hypoprotection (parents are not interested in how and what their child lives, as a result of which he grows up emotionally unstable, embittered, anxious) [3[39]/p>
A. Ya. Varga identifies the following features of the parental attitude towards the child, which influence the characteristics of the formation of the child’s communicative and organizational abilities [3[3]strong>.
1. Acceptance-rejection. At one extreme, these are characteristics such as emotional acceptance of the child by the parent, support, sympathy for the child, trust in relationships, respect for the child’s individuality, desire to spend a lot of time with the child, approval of his interests and plans. At the other pole is the parent’s perception of his child as bad, unadapted , unlucky, stupid. The parent experiences more irritation, anger, frustration, and does not trust the child.
2. Cooperation (the parent is interested in the child’s affairs and plans, tries to help him if necessary, highly appreciates the child’s intellectual and creative abilities , is proud of him, encourages his independence, trusts, tries to look through the child’s eyes at controversial issues that arise in the relationship in order to understand his point of view vision , his experiences).
3. Symbiosis (the desire of the parent to reduce the distance in the relationship with the child, the desire to constantly care, control, satisfy all the needs of the child, to protect him from the difficulties of life; the parent is constantly worried about the child, he seems small and defenseless to him).
4. Authoritarian hypersocialization (the parent is authoritarian in his relationship with the child, imposes his will without discussion, demanding unconditional obedience; with this style, frequent punishments, strong control of the child, his feelings, thoughts, and actions are common).
5. "Little Loser"
(the parent infantilizes the child, attributing to him inconsistency, failure; all the time he downplays
the child’s abilities , does not trust him, tries to protect him from difficulties) [3[3]br> Thus, the basis of the parental relationship, consisting of attitudes, positions, emotional perception of relations with a child is a conscious perception of his parental role. A child, receiving a certain parental attitude in the family, also begins to relate to the world, to himself, to other people, on the basis of which he develops certain strategies of communicative behavior , both with adults and with peers.
M.I. Lisina emphasizes that the experience of primary relationships with peers represents the foundation on which the child’s personality is built in the future; the experience of communication subsequently determines the child’s attitude towards himself, towards others, and towards the world as a whole; as well as the nature of his communication and organizational abilities [2[24]strong>.
By older preschool age, children's friendliness towards peers and the ability to help each other . According to psychological research by E. O. Smirnova, in older preschool age, many children show a selfless desire to help their peers with something, to give them something, to make a concession on something. During this period, the emotional involvement of children in the process of empathy with peers increases significantly [3[34]/p>
In communication with peers, preschoolers’ behavior becomes more emotional than in contact with adults. An active desire to communicate with peers in various activities contributes to the formation of a “children’s community”
.
This forms a certain prerequisite for the development of collective relations in the future, in particular the manifestation of communication and organizational skills . The content of communication with peers is, therefore, an important factor in the personal development of a child of senior preschool age [3[35]br> Thus, an analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature allows us to say that the education of the fundamentals of a communicative culture of behavior in children of senior preschool age is carried out under the influence objective living conditions, in the process of training and education, as well as transferring to the child the values of universal human culture. This process of pedagogical organization of a child’s entire life must necessarily take into account his age and individual characteristics.
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Try to initiate the conversation
Residents of a big city have long been accustomed to pretend that, walking down the street, moving on a bus or on the subway, they do not notice a familiar person or do not recognize him. Downcast eyes, as a rule, indicate a person’s reluctance to communicate with anyone, and this works - they also lose the desire to talk to you.
This adult version of hide and seek causes people to experience more stress and negative emotions than a conversation with even the most undesirable interlocutor.
When you see someone you know, but hide intensely, pretending not to notice him, you are in a state of anticipation. A swarm of questions flash through my head: did he recognize me? Does he want to talk? Or maybe he is in a bad mood and is not in the mood for a conversation? Should I come or not?
In order not to be stressed and not torment yourself once again, it is better to simply come up and start a dialogue, to act as its initiator. You will be surprised how easy it is. If the interlocutor is really not in the mood for a conversation, then you can simply say goodbye and move away.
