Tasks of child psychology and 4 main methods of working with a child

HISTORY OF ORIGIN

The psychology of children began to be studied relatively recently, only at the end of the 19th century. The rapid development of industry and a new level of social life created the preconditions for the emergence of modern schools. The question of the correctness of education by force - through physical punishment - has become acute. And then the task arose - to learn to understand a small child.

The impetus for in-depth research was V. Preyer’s book “The Soul of a Child.” A German scientist observed the development of his own son’s psyche and recorded the results daily. Particular attention in the book is paid to the gradual improvement of motor skills, sensory organs, reason, speech, and will. Today the scientist’s works are considered somewhat outdated, but it was they that laid the foundation for child psychology as an independent discipline.

Science can develop successfully only if it uses scientifically based methods to accumulate facts. Psychology as a science implements in its research the principles of scientific knowledge that are common to other sciences, such as the reflection of objective truth and verification of the studied patterns in practice.

At the same time, the features of the methods are determined by the features of the object of scientific knowledge. Unlike other natural sciences, psychology deals with such a developed object as the psyche in general and the human psyche in particular. The peculiarities of mental phenomena in comparison with physical, chemical or biological ones are, first of all, associated with the exceptionally high centralization and integration of the structure of mental control, especially in humans. This means that, in contrast to physicochemical processes, which have fairly stable empirical dependencies, mental processes most directly depend on the highest levels of regulation: objectively given needs, motives, conscious control, etc. Mental phenomena therefore appear as very variable , which do not have external repeatability or stability.

Another specific feature of mental phenomena is their integrity. The possibilities of their material and purely functional separation are sharply limited. In biology, for example, you can study individual cells, isolated organs, and functional systems. In physics, too, there are many material objects or processes that are largely independent and stable in their properties, which provides great opportunities for their artificial isolation and careful experimental study. In the psyche, there is not a single process that would be isolated from other processes and the organization of personality and activity as a whole. Thus, memory processes include mental and emotional components, thinking includes all mental processes. A psychologist cannot, for example, completely eliminate motivation; he can only modify it. In accordance with the listed features of the object, the principles of psychological research have their own specifics.

Rubinstein put forward the principle of determinism as the most important principle for the study of mental phenomena. This principle is formulated as follows: the mental arises as a result of external influences, external conditions, but these external influences are mediated, refracted by internal conditions, characteristics of the subject. In recent decades, the probabilistic nature of mental activity has been emphasized; according to this, an important feature of modern methodology of psychological research is the unity of deterministic and probabilistic approaches. The human psyche develops and is formed in the process of activity, therefore one of the principles of studying the psyche is the study of mental phenomena in the process of human activity. Another important principle is the principle introduced into psychology by Blonsky and consists in the need to study all mental phenomena in development - phylogenetic and ontogenetic, socio-historical and individual.

Considering the high degree of integration and mental integrity, the anthropological principle introduced by Ananyev is very productive. The essence of the anthropological principle is a comprehensive study of a person with the simultaneous measurement of a large number of multi-level characteristics (morphological, physiological, psychological, social) and the diagnostic orientation of psychological research.

One of the most important features of modern psychology is the use of a systemic-structural approach. The essence of this approach is that a person (individual, personality, individuality) is considered not as a set of individual mental processes, properties, states, but as an integral entity that includes many characteristics and elements united by certain connections.

In psychology, a system of methods is emerging that covers the entire cycle of scientific research of a person and includes organizational, empirical, quantitative and qualitative analysis of scientific data, and interpretive methods (Ananyev).

Organizational methods (these include comparative, longitudinal, complex) operate throughout the entire study. The comparative method is modified in different psychological disciplines and acts as a comparison of mental characteristics at different stages of evolution (in zoopsychology). The comparative method, as a general method of organizing research, is widely used in general psychology (comparing different groups of subjects); in social psychology (comparison of various types of small groups, demographic, ethnographic, sociocultural and other groups); in pathopsychology (comparing patients with healthy people, people with defects - sensory, motor, intellectual - with normally seeing, hearing, etc.). In developmental psychology, the comparative method appears in the form of the method of “age-related” or “cross-sectional” sections.

The cross-sectional method allows one to compare the mental development of individuals of different ages. This method is important in solving psychodiagnostic problems, problems of establishing age norms and age-related syndromes. The disadvantage of the cross-sectional method is the equalization of all individuals of a given age and a given population, which in fact cannot be at the same point in ontogenetic evolution, since they develop at different rates and in different ways.

A distinctive feature of the longitudinal method is the conduct of research on the same subjects or groups of subjects during their ontogenetic development, that is, in repeated, regular and systematic observation and study. The longitudinal method is more complex than the cross-sectional method, it is more individualized and eliminates such a serious drawback of the cross-sectional method as the equation of all individuals of a given age. The advantage of the longitudinal method is the ability to predict mental development.

The complex method involves studying the main components of the holistic structure of a person in their interrelations and studying the connections of individual indicators with the holistic organization of human individuality.

Empirical methods for obtaining scientific data constitute the largest group of methods. This group includes observation and self-observation (observational methods), experimental methods (laboratory, field, natural, formative or psychological-pedagogical), psychodiagnostic methods (tests - standardized and projective), questionnaires, sociometry, interviews, conversations; analysis of processes and products of activity (timing, cyclography, professional description, evaluation of products and work performed, including student work), which can be called praxismetric methods; modeling (mathematical, cybernetic), biographical methods (analysis of facts, dates and events of life, documents, testimonies). The use of individual methods or their combination depends on the tasks and object of the study, as well as on what organizational method (comparative, longitudinal, complex) the researcher uses.

Observation is a purposeful study based on the perception of a person’s actions and actions in his natural conditions. In order for an observation to be objective, it must meet a number of requirements:

1) natural conditions;

2) the invisibility of observation for the people whom it is being conducted (for this, hidden observation is used with the help of special equipment, or the researcher himself becomes a member of the group and is included in the process of its activities - participant observation);

3) purposefulness, that is, goals and objectives, mental manifestations that are subject to observation must be clearly defined.

In accordance with the goals and objectives, observation can be continuous (all mental manifestations are recorded) or selective (only individual manifestations are recorded, for example, only emotional ones). In observation, recording the results is important; it can be carried out using special records - protocols, transcripts, but at present special equipment is of greatest importance: television-audio recording, filming with a hidden camera, etc.

Observation requires a significant amount of time, the researcher is in a passive position, he is forced to wait for the phenomenon of interest to occur. The results of observation may be influenced by the attitudes and interests of the researcher.

Given these disadvantages, observation is used primarily in cases where minimal interference with natural behavior is required, when it is necessary to obtain a holistic picture. It is often used in the initial stages of research and then complemented by other research methods.

Self-observation as a real process is always present in psychological research and can act as a self-report by the subject about his thoughts, progress in solving a problem, experiences, etc. Self-observation is of particular importance when studying the dynamics of consciousness, when describing well-being in certain states of activity, dynamics ideas and experiences, motives of behavior. Of great importance are the techniques and data of indirect self-observation, presented in the form of diaries, autobiographical materials, and correspondence. In medical practice, subjective history material is always used, compared with data from clinical and laboratory studies (objective history). It should be noted that the very possibility of introspection and its adequacy depend on the level of introspection, which is an indicator of a person’s mental development.

Experimental methods are leading in psychology, as in any science, since in an experiment the researcher himself causes the phenomenon of interest to him and can actively influence it; can vary conditions and identify on this basis the causes of mental phenomena. In an experiment, it is possible to repeatedly repeat and reproduce conditions and results, which allows one to accumulate quantitative data and draw conclusions about the typicality, regularity or randomness of the phenomena being studied. The main task of an experiment in psychology is to make the essential features of internal mental phenomena accessible to observation and study.

The first form of experimental method in psychology was the laboratory experiment. Classic types of laboratory experiments are methods of sensorimotor reactions (simple motor, choice reactions), psychophysical methods (determination of thresholds and dynamics of sensitivity). Experimental psychology has accumulated a large number of psychometric methods for studying mnemonic, perceptual, attentional and other processes.

The advantage of the experimental method is the ability to control the experiment. In a hardware experiment, equipment is used that allows one to strictly record the characteristics of external influences and the corresponding responses of the subjects. In addition, it is possible to use equipment that records mental, vegetative and other physiological manifestations (EEG, ECG, etc.). The disadvantages of the experimental method include unusual, unnatural conditions for a person, which changes the nature of mental processes and can affect the mental state, causing anxiety and fear.

In a natural experiment, unlike a laboratory experiment, the content of normal human activity is preserved, but conditions are created under which the phenomenon being studied is necessarily caused. The natural experiment was first developed by Lazursky and used to study the personality of a schoolchild.

Thanks to electronic microminiature technology, it became possible to extend experimental psychological research beyond the laboratory. The experimental psychological method, using portable equipment, shortened cycles of experimental procedures and conducting research in natural conditions, is called a field experiment.

Laboratory and natural experiments can be ascertaining and formative. A formative experiment involves the active intervention of the researcher in the phenomenon being studied, the design, modeling and formation of mental processes, states and personality traits. Currently, the formative experiment most often acts as a psychological and pedagogical one, as a method of experimental developmental training and education of children.

Psychodiagnostic methods are aimed at identifying differences between people or groups united according to any principle: age, gender, education, psychophysiological characteristics, conditions, etc. The result of using psychodiagnostic methods is the formulation of a psychological diagnosis. One of the most common psychodiagnostic methods are tests. A test is a trial or short test. The main requirement for the test is standardization of presentation conditions (therefore, in each test there is always instructions for the user and instructions for the test taker), standardization of test material (these can be questions, tasks, pictures, etc.), standardization of results processing (specially designed for each test of the scoring system and scale indicators). A mandatory feature of a standardized test is the presence of a system of normative indicators, which allows you to compare individual results with normative ones and determine the place of each subject in a series of standardized indicators (in the population). Standardization of the presentation and processing of results ensures the independence of test results from the experimental situation and from the personality of the researcher, allows for comparison of results obtained by different researchers, and ultimately contributes to the objectivity and reliability of the psychological diagnosis. Standardized tests include success tests, psychomotor tests, psychovegetative tests, tests of neurodynamic properties, intelligence tests, professional aptitude tests, and standardized questionnaires.

For psychodiagnostics of personality traits, character traits, and motives for activity, projective tests are most often used. A characteristic feature of projective tests is the uncertainty of the stimulus material (this can be spots of various configurations, pictures with uncertain content, unfinished sentences or an unfinished story). These tests do not measure individual functions, but a mode of personality. In reactions to the uncertainty of stimulus material, internal, often unconscious, motivations, problems, and hidden motives are projected (manifested). Working with projective tests requires very high qualifications of the researcher both when conducting research and when interpreting the data obtained. When using tests, it is necessary to take into account the previous living conditions and development of the subject, the level of education, the degree of interest and motivation for solving test tasks.

A conversation is a method of collecting data about mental phenomena in the process of personal communication according to a specially designed program. Conversation is a complementary technique to experimental methods. In social psychology, conversation acts as an independent interview method with its own special technique for collecting information, principles for grading answers and a rating scale.

Questioning is a correspondence survey; it is used when it is necessary to interview a large number of people in a short period of time. The survey may be anonymous if it concerns intimate or controversial issues.

Studying the products of activity - collecting and analyzing the results of human activity: labor (manufactured parts, projects, paintings); educational (essay, educational tasks, abstracts); games (various buildings, crafts). Timing of work or sports movements and cyclographic analysis of labor actions are also used.

The biographical method is the collection and analysis of data about a person’s life path. In the biographical method, three aspects can be distinguished: biological-biographical, which consists in the study of objective living conditions, environmental events and human behavior in this environment; the history of experiences, the evolution of a person’s inner world; history of human creativity.

A special group of methods consists of data processing techniques: quantitative, that is, mathematical-statistical, and qualitative, that is, individual-typological analysis.

The least developed and extremely important are the interpretive methods, which include various variations of the genetic and structural methods. The genetic method can cover all levels of development, from neural to behavioral. The relationships between parts and the whole, that is, functions and the individual, the subject of activity and personality, are determined by structural methods (psychography, typological classification, psychological profile). At the same time, the genetic method interprets all research material in the characteristics of development, highlighting phases, stages, critical moments in the formation of mental functions and personality traits. The structural method interprets all material in the characteristics of systems and types of connections between them. A specific expression of this method is psychography, as a holistic synthetic description of individuality. Psychography is a specific method for studying individual psychological differences between people. It allows you to identify connections between potential capabilities, abilities and tendencies, the direction of individuality, identify the main contradictions and formulate a development forecast.

TASKS AND GOALS

Child psychology is a branch of general psychology that studies the characteristics of the inner life of a child, the patterns of mental formation between the ages of 0 and 17 years. Science is closely related to other disciplines: pedagogy, developmental morphology and physiology, general psychology. Its immediate goal is to identify the conditions of mental development.

Child psychology sets itself the following tasks:

find out the driving reasons for the individual development of the organism (ontogenesis);
establish the age limits of development and the conditions for transition from one stage to another;
study the manifestations of mental functions at different ages and scientifically substantiate the norms;
determine standards of personality maturity;
find out a person’s capabilities at different periods of life, including potential ones;
make a forecast of mental development.

Methods for studying psychic phenomena

What are called methods of scientific knowledge. This is the name for the methods by which scientists obtain reliable and reliable knowledge about psychological phenomena. This knowledge, unlike that which people receive and have in ordinary, everyday life, seems to be quite accurate and verifiable. The latter means that the correctness of scientific knowledge can be re-tested in a special study if it is organized and conducted in accordance with the rules of science. Such rules, in particular, include the laws of strict logic of thinking, following which allows one to obtain reliable knowledge.

Each science has its own methods of cognition, corresponding to the nature of the phenomena that are studied in this science. At the same time, different sciences use the same research methods. For example, this is an observation

and
experiment.
How can we study psychic phenomena? Mental phenomena can be studied by directly observing them, recording, evaluating and describing them in the form in which they are presented in human sensations. Introspection has been used in psychology for a long time. However, this method is not entirely reliable, since with its help it is impossible to obtain sufficiently reliable, objective information about mental phenomena. It does not allow us to study those phenomena that are not fully understood by humans. However, it is the only method by which mental phenomena can be observed and assessed directly.

Indirectly, mental phenomena can also be judged by the external signs in which they manifest themselves. These are motor and other bodily reactions of a person directly related to mental phenomena, his speech and actions. This method of studying mental phenomena is called objective,

bearing in mind that mental phenomena in this case are judged by external, clearly observable signs. This method also does not always allow one to obtain absolutely accurate and completely reliable knowledge about mental phenomena, since there is no clear connection between mental phenomena, bodily changes, verbal reactions and human behavior.

In principle, mental phenomena can be judged by what the person himself says about them. This method of studying mental phenomena is called self-report

or
a survey.
In order to draw correct conclusions about the laws to which mental phenomena are subject, it is possible to create conditions under which these phenomena will purposefully change, and then carefully monitor their changes.
This method of studying mental phenomena is called experiment.
It was borrowed by psychologists from other sciences, more developed than psychology, and contributed to the fact that psychology became a recognized, modern science.

All other methods of studying psychic phenomena, which will be discussed further, are variations of these four main methods of scientific research. In general, psychology uses quite a lot of different methods for studying mental phenomena. This is because mental phenomena are very difficult to study and evaluate accurately.

What are the main groups of methods for scientific study and practical knowledge of mental phenomena. The entire set of methods for studying mental phenomena can be divided into groups. There are six such groups: observation methods, survey methods, physiological methods, tests, experimental methods, natural science methods, technical methods.

Note that this is one of the possible classifications of psychological research methods. There are other ways of dividing methods of cognition of psychological phenomena into groups.

Let us briefly consider each of the groups of research methods in psychology identified above.

Observation methods are usually called such methods of cognition of mental phenomena, which are based on direct human observation of the mental phenomena themselves or of those signs in which they are clearly and unambiguously manifested.

In the case of using the observation method, mental phenomena are judged based on the results of observation, these results are processed, analyzed and appropriate conclusions are drawn. So, for example, a person, memorizing or recalling some material, can observe what and in what sequence is remembered or recalled by him. If we are interested in a person’s emotional experiences, then we can judge them by observing the person’s gestures, facial expressions and pantomimes.

There are the following types of observation methods: self-observation, outside observation, free observation, standardized observation

and
participant observation.
Self-observation is a person’s observation of himself, observation from the outside is observation of other people. Free observation is usually carried out without a predetermined plan or preconceived program. Moreover, during the observation itself, the observer makes decisions about what to observe, how to observe, how to record and process the results.

In so-called standardized observation, all this is thought out in advance, and such observation itself is carried out according to a very specific plan. Involved observation is called observation in which the observer not only observes, but is himself a participant in the process that he observes and in which the people he observes are included. For example, you can watch children play while playing with them.

Survey methods are based on conclusions about a person's psychology, which are made on the basis of what he says about himself. Such methods also have several options: oral survey, written survey, free survey, standardized survey.

The meaning of the varieties of these methods becomes clear from the names of the methods themselves.

Physiological or objective

are called such methods of studying mental phenomena, in which conclusions about the mental characteristics of human behavior are made on the basis of bodily, physiological reactions and movements associated with the phenomena being studied.
Since these reactions and the corresponding external or internal movements can be observed and recorded, for example, using physical instruments, such methods are called objective. In contrast, the observation and survey methods described above can be conditionally called subjective,
since they are based on what the person himself feels and says.

Psychological tests are methods that can be used to accurately describe and quantify the psychological phenomena being studied. Psychological tests are standardized methods of scientific research in the above sense of the word; they cannot be arbitrarily changed and must be used exactly as described in the relevant instructions. Tests constitute the main group of modern methods for studying mental phenomena.

Natural science refers to methods that psychologists borrow from the natural sciences and the sciences about the structure and functioning of the human body. Such methods, in particular, include the methods of mathematical statistics

and
instrumental methods
for studying the physiology of the body.

Technical methods are those associated with the use of various instruments and devices, for example, devices that are used to present and record objective information about mental phenomena, computers, and means of transmitting and processing information (radio, telephone, TV).

Chapter 2

Psychology of humans and animals:

Comparative analysis

§ 1. The simplest mental phenomena. Mental phenomena and life. What are the simplest mental phenomena? When and under what conditions could psyche arise? Do plants have a psyche?

§ 2. The psyche and behavior of animals. How to establish what mental phenomena are inherent in animals. How are the psyche and behavior of animals interconnected? What basic mental phenomena and types of behavior are characteristic of animals at different stages of evolution. What are the highest achievements of psychological and behavioral development of animals.

§ 3. Psychology and human behavior. What is called the highest mental function. How do higher mental functions differ from elementary mental functions? What are the highest mental states and the highest psychological, personal properties of a person. What is called consciousness, reason and will of a person. What is conscience, responsibility, morality, spiritual needs of a person.

METHODS OF STUDYING THE CHILD'S PSYCHE

The study of children's mental development is based on the principles of general psychology: the unity of the psyche and activity, determinism, objectivity and development. In short, for the results of the study to be reliable, it is necessary to take into account the degree of maturity of the nervous system, have in-depth knowledge of the mental characteristics of the previous age, and conduct the experiment in the most natural environment possible. When making a comparative analysis, the socio-economic, ethnic and other differences of children should be taken into account.

There are 4 main methods of child psychology.

Observation. The method consists of tracking the behavior of children in familiar conditions. To achieve results, they set certain goals. A psychologist observes the child’s actions with objects, his statements, and movements. Afterwards, he interprets what mental processes are behind external manifestations.
Survey. In a conversation, the researcher finds out the child’s knowledge, his opinion about himself, other people, as well as about events, actions, and objects. Questions should be formulated clearly and interestingly. To prevent suggestion from happening, you need to ask without prompting (for example: “Are you offended by your mother?”). With preschool children, conversation time is limited, and up to 4 years old, pictures are provided for answers.
Experiment. It makes it possible to evoke manifestations of interest in the child’s psyche and then evaluate them. The experiment involves changing the operating conditions and setting certain tasks. By how a child behaves and what choices he makes, his psychological characteristics are judged. The method is carried out in a playful way (in uncomfortable conditions, children often act at random).
Assessment of labor results. Various drawings, applications, and essays reflect the peculiarities of perception of objects or people from the environment. Also, a child’s crafts allow us to judge the degree of development of his mental abilities. A product made according to the instructions of an adult indicates an understanding of these instructions, the ability to complete the task, conscientiousness, and attentiveness.

Additionally, testing and a sociometric method are used to study the child’s psyche, where relationships between children and the desire for friendly connections are studied. In preschool institutions, participant observation by the teacher is mandatory. In this case, the purpose of the study is to clarify the individual psychological characteristics of the child in order to identify the optimal approach to him.

Psychological research

Almost all mental disorders affect a person’s personality, the characteristics of his internal mental activity (higher mental functions), character traits, family relationships, and the characteristics of his response in a given situation.

That is why, specializing in the treatment, first of all, of various types of mental disorders, we always conduct a psychological examination of patients. All the variety of methods of psychological research allows us to determine with high accuracy the individual characteristics of the functioning of each person, the state of his thinking, attention, memory, perception, imagination, and speech.

Any high-quality diagnostics should be based on the possibility of using a variety of methodological tools. For psychological examinations in psychiatry, this rule is just as important. The fact is that the process of mental disintegration during the development of one or another mental disorder is always multi-layered in nature and is distinguished by enormous diversity. You should never see a picture in which in one patient “... only the processes of synthesis and analysis would be disrupted, while in another, only the individual’s purposefulness would suffer.” (Zeigarnik B.V. Principles of constructing pathopsychological research // Pathopsychology: Reader. Compiled by N.L. Belopolskaya. 2nd ed., revised and supplemented. - M.: 2000).

To study all of the above, our clinic uses the following neuropsychological research methods:

the Wechsler test is a tool for assessing the level of intelligence (IQ), a widely known technique throughout the world;
The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WTST) is a neuropsychological technique that is mainly aimed at the clinical diagnosis of attention disorders in various types of mental disorders. This method, being widely known in the practice of Western specialists, being reliable and accurate, unfortunately, is little used here in Russia.
We also use another, more well-known in domestic practice, A.R. technique. Luria , aimed at studying three blocks necessary for the proper functioning of the brain: the energy block that regulates the tone of the cerebral cortex; the second block, responsible for processing and storing information received by a person; the third is the block that regulates activities. Based on the information received, we can determine the degree and nature of brain damage, plan a rehabilitation strategy and the direction of therapy.

The pathopsychological study conducted by our clinical psychologists includes the testing process itself (experiment), a conversation with the patient, observation of his condition during the examination and analysis of the life history (history) written by the doctor. The choice of method and one or another pathopsychological scale depends on the task that the doctor sets for the psychologist.

It is also important to conduct a study of the patient’s personality type and structure. For this purpose, we use reliable methods that give reliable results:

MMPI (Minnesota Multidimensional Personality Inventory) , widely used in clinical practice in clinics around the world. This is a questionnaire, the use of which is possible in various versions - full or shorter, depending on the goals and objectives of the study.
Spielberger-Khanin test , as a way of assessing the level and qualitative characteristics of anxiety (determining whether it is a personality trait or conditioned situationally);
projective methods (TAT/thematic apperception test), used to study the patient’s affective sphere, his internal conflicts, motivation, etc.

These methods complement those that are necessary when studying family relationships and the family system. The fact is that the family is often a source of resources for the patient’s recovery after illness, and in the opposite cases, a source of destabilization for the person. The study of family relationships and attitudes is a source of information for the possibility of making corrections in the future. No matter how hard the psychiatrist and psychotherapist try, no matter how carefully the medications are prescribed, the patient returns after suffering an illness to his familiar family environment, and it is her attitude, the competence of her relatives, their own internal resources and readiness for constructive actions that are an additional supporting factor in quality treatment.

Thus, conducting clinical psychological research is a whole range of methods that are aimed at studying the human psyche, his motives, aspirations, characteristics of higher nervous activity, social relationships and personality traits.

Psychological research is very important in psychiatric practice, since it allows not only to clarify the diagnosis, ascertain health or impairment of a particular function, but also to enable the correct construction of correctional work. This becomes especially important when determining how to rehabilitate the patient.

Since, as a psychiatric clinic, we are aimed at comprehensive treatment of various types of disorders, it is precisely the versatility of diagnostics that is designed to help us solve this problem.

In addition to pharmacological treatment, we use various methods of psychotherapy, for which it is very important to study various personal characteristics: will, purposefulness of behavior, characteristics of motivation, the presence or absence of anxiety, etc.

Our rehabilitation work (cognitive and social skills training) also requires reliable information about the degree of preservation/or level of development of social skills, thinking, attention, memory, perception, speech.

Thus, psychological studies conducted by clinical psychologists at our clinic are an integral and very important part of diagnosing patients, as well as assessing the success of treatment.

STAGES OF MENTAL DEVELOPMENT

The process of forming a child’s psyche is very long and subtle. It is influenced by many factors: heredity, environment, upbringing and training, activity, etc. For a better understanding of children and high-quality tracking of development, the so-called age periodization was introduced. D. B. Elkoin divided the process of mental formation into stages, where the key moment is the child’s leading activity. There are 6 such periods in total.

FROM 0 TO ONE YEAR (INFANCY)

The child’s activity is determined by emotional communication with adults; he is in close contact with his mother and depends on her. Psychological development is affected by new formations: independent movement in space, emotional representations, discovery of one’s own self (physical), oneself as part of the world of people.

FROM ONE TO 3 YEARS (EARLY CHILDHOOD)

The activity with objects becomes the leader. They are also social tools. The child’s speech develops, he strives for independence, imitates an adult, uses the pronoun “I,” and is proud of his successes. The adult ceases to act as an intermediary between the baby and the outside world and now plays the role of an assistant.

FROM 3 YEARS BEFORE ENTERING SCHOOL (PRESCHOOL AGE)

Actions and mental development are determined by role-playing games. Egocentrism is overcome, the first understanding of good and evil comes. Behavior becomes arbitrary, a hierarchy of motives is built, the child strives for cognitive activity and can replace one object with another. There is an opening of the inner world. The behavior of an adult is considered an example; a preschooler tries to behave similarly among his peers.

FROM 7 TO 11 YEARS (EARLY SCHOOL AGE)

The leading activity is educational. The child masters simple methods of operating in the scientific field. His will and theoretical thinking are formed. The ability to plan appears, mental functions are intellectualized. Relationships with an adult develop in two directions - as with a loved one and as with a social figure. The child’s external world undergoes major changes due to the need to attend school.

FROM 12 TO 15 YEARS OLD (JUNIOR ADOLESCENCE)

Activity is determined by the desire to know other people, oneself, and relationships. Norms of social behavior are learned. The teenager begins to feel like an adult, self-awareness comes, the discovery of the inner “I”. Relationships with teachers, relatives, and peers change due to a new understanding of oneself and the desire to find one’s place in society. Communication with peers becomes intimate and personal, going beyond the scope of study. Teenagers gather in groups where they master the norms of social relations and their regulation.

FROM 15 TO 17 YEARS OLD (SENIOR ADOLESCENCE)

In the development of the psyche, a decisive role is played by activities related to vocational training, choice of profession, and deepening into a narrow specialization. Externally, changes in the educational process occur, the teenager takes the first steps towards self-education, attends certain courses and sections. Orientation in the value system is formed, self-determination occurs - both personally and professionally.

The psyche of a child is different from the psyche of adults. At different stages of growing up, a person’s activities, his way of life, relationships with society, and even his own body change. In just 5 years, he turns from a rattling baby into a personality with his own preferences, tastes, and habits. The psyche in childhood is as plastic as possible. It is easy to correct by simply directing activities in the right direction. But an adult is already formed, it is difficult to modify his psyche. Therefore, already in early childhood, parents should pay attention to the child’s worldview, have frank conversations with him, analyze his crafts and drawings, and if necessary, do not be afraid to turn to a specialist.

Psychology

§ 2. Functions and methods of practical psychology

The function of psychodiagnostics is primarily to assess the situation, and the main goal of such an assessment is to isolate the psychological essence of a practical problem, that is, to formulate the real problem in terms of psychological situations studied or being studied in theoretical and experimental psychology. In this process, there is an assessment of the psychological characteristics of the creature and the conditions of the task itself, the characteristics of the subject solving it; disclosure of possible psychological mechanisms and ways to solve it. The situation is assessed using psychodiagnostic methods, in which a psychological classification and analysis of the space of life situations and tasks that arise before a person at a given segment of his life path is performed. As a result of psychodiagnostics, the following occurs:

• identification of real problems in space and classes of psychologically solvable problems;

• identification of properties and qualities of people and groups in the system of corresponding psychological categories and types. The most important requirement here is the practical validity of psychodiagnostic methods.

There are important consequences of the psychological assessment of the situation, in particular the psychodiagnostics of tasks. First of all, at this stage, one can assess the ability of psychological science to solve the problem that has arisen. Moreover, if this practical problem cannot be solved, then based on the results of psychodiagnostics, new research tasks can be set, including identifying new fundamental problems that need to be posed to psychological science.

The second function - psychoprognosis, or drawing up a psychological forecast - is to assess the possible dynamics of the analyzed tasks in new conditions. Here there is an assessment of the ways of developing the situation, methods for solving the specified problem, correlation and correspondence of the boundaries of the class of psychological and real problems. Essentially, after diagnosing the problem, we move on to assessing how we can expand the scope of application of psychological knowledge: transfer the obtained solutions to new, not yet explored conditions.

Rice. 2.6.

Methods of practical psychology

This function is implemented using a system of forecasting methods, including forecasting the consequences of adopted practical recommendations. We have seen that the use of psychodiagnostics is based primarily on existing knowledge of psychology, and psychodiagnostic methods can be defined as empirical methods for identifying a real object. When making a forecast, the methods used are much broader, and the theoretical basis for the forecast should be more thorough.

The implementation of the predictive function in practical psychology, of course, is based on both empirical and theoretical methods. When forecasting, at least partially, the meaning of the ideal objects of psychological theory changes. On the one hand, the use of theoretical methods makes it possible to evaluate the behavior of ideal objects under new conditions, and on the other hand (when using empirical methods for prediction) the experimental procedures themselves can act as ideal objects for a certain class of practical problems. Clearly, this means that the basis of the forecast in any case is the theoretical result - and it is necessary to evaluate its potential practical reliability.

In contrast to psychodiagnostics and psychoprognosis (correlating the real situation and scientific psychological knowledge), the third function - psychological influence and control - consists of the practical implementation of scientific knowledge in the actions and recommendations of a psychologist. Here the return of scientific knowledge to life takes place and this causes a sharp change in methods: from the usual empirical and theoretical procedures, similar to research, the specialist psychologist moves on to practical influence on people and groups. Therefore, the third function can be defined as a control function, and the system of methods used in its implementation should be designated as a system of methods of psychological influence and management.

The implementation of this function in practice requires the presentation of theoretical knowledge in the highest concrete and constructive form. This, of course, places additional demands on scientific psychology, in particular the requirements of reality (in form), constructiveness (in content) and humanity (in goals) of the system of psychological management methods.

According to the method of application of psychological knowledge, three functions of practical psychology are distinguished: psychodiagnostics, when the main thing is the identification of real objects, that is, their projection into a system of psychological categories and determination of their place (localization) in the system of ideal objects of the theory; psychoprognostics, when theoretical knowledge and, first of all, ideal objects of theory are used to obtain new knowledge about possible changes in the properties of real objects; there is, as it were, a projection of scientific knowledge onto new conditions or onto other tasks and objects; psychological influence and control, when the knowledge and methods available in the fundamental and applied branches of psychology are used to develop real control actions.

The selected functions are divided as follows. In psychodiagnostics, all objects are actually specified: people, practical problems and the conditions in which these problems must be solved are known.

When making a forecast, some objects are given in reality, and some are specified only potentially, since it is not possible to create and empirically study all tasks and conditions.

With psychological influence and control, some objects must be designed and then created on the basis of psychological knowledge: it is necessary to form some new mental qualities of people, form new patterns of behavior - or design new features of the task, change the conditions for their solution, etc.

The functions of practical psychology are realized both in the analysis and solution of an integral problem, and when considering its individual components: when working with people, groups and teams; when assessing and changing components and their operating conditions.

These functions themselves form an integral system of practical psychology, which, in turn, can be subjected to special analysis. They are inextricably linked with the system of methods for their implementation, therefore, when discussing practical examples and scientific problems, it is advisable to consider them together.

The peculiarities of the methods of practical psychology are quite clearly manifested in the widespread area of classical psychodiagnostics - when assessing the mental qualities of individuals, especially those that are most important for a particular type of activity. The analysis will show that in this case, too, serious methodological and theoretical problems can be discovered, the solution of which can only be found by turning to fundamental psychological research.

The meaning of individual psychodiagnostics is to assess the basic mental properties of a particular person in relation to the general patterns and properties revealed in the system of psychological knowledge - in general and differential psychology and psychophysiology. As we have already noted, this assessment can be considered as the result of identifying a real object in terms and in the system of psychological knowledge. Therefore, diagnostic tasks require the use of complex integrated procedures and the subsequent interpretation of the diagnosed properties and qualities of an individual in terms of categories and ideal objects of psychological science.

It is possible to distinguish different variants of psychodiagnostic approaches, in line with which specific methods for obtaining, processing and interpreting data are formed. The first option (one of the most common) provides for a qualitative classification of a person’s special properties in relation to the general (general) population of people or a sufficiently large (representative) sample from it.

The task is to identify the belonging of a given individual to a certain class in a certain set of mental qualities (for example, types of individual characteristics of the organization of the intellectual, emotional and volitional sphere, types of temperament, etc.).

The most common methods and techniques of such classification diagnostics are various scales, profiles, questionnaires, test batteries and other non-hardware and instrumental techniques, widely known in differential psychology and psychophysiology. One of the simplest, but important examples of this type is the differential diagnosis of the properties of the nervous system, developed in the domestic school of differential psychophysiology [V. D. Nebylitsyn, 1966; V. M. Rusalov, 1983, 2000]. Another example in this area is the diagnosis of personality types using complex structural questionnaires or the study of intelligence types using a battery of tests [ see,

for example, A. Anastasi, 1982; K. M. Gurevich, 1983].

Classification diagnostic methods can be used both for research purposes and for solving practical problems. The research goal is to, based on the analysis of some characteristics of the population, determine stable typical formations (classes, clusters, taxa, etc.). It is assumed that the nature of an individual’s behavior and activity directly depends on the characteristics of the class to which he is assigned.

Thus, the principle of equivalence and interchangeability of class representatives is implicitly implemented. This principle and its applicability in psychology have not been specifically studied, but it is widely used for both scientific and practical purposes, when the characteristics of the class to which he belongs are transferred to an individual, and the patterns established for the class are considered true for each specific representative of it.

The second version of the diagnostic approach is very closely related to the first in terms of initial ideas, methods and interpretation: it represents the next, higher level of analysis and generalization of the original empirical data. This version of the approach is usually called the representation of a real object in multidimensional space. Space itself includes a limited set of qualitative features that are considered (at least potentially) interpretable in a psychological sense, sufficient to describe real objects. The initial theoretical premise is that, in principle, it is possible to find a not very large number of weakly related features, with the help of which it is possible to describe the object being examined as a point in the multidimensional space of these features.

If, as a result of the survey, it is possible to describe some properties of a particular individual in the specified form, then, using special procedures of formal multidimensional analysis, it is possible to determine its localization in the selected coordinate system. In this case, there is the potential to compare individuals who differ from each other, even if they belong to the same class. The introduction of a quantitative measure of features provides an additional opportunity to more accurately identify a real object.

The specific grounds for choosing an a priori coordinate system in this version of the diagnostic approach are special ideal objects of psychological theory: various multi-parameter (complex, complex, multifaceted, etc.) models of mental formations. These can be personality models, ranging from the simplest “flat” ones to hierarchical structural models. Examples of the implementation of this approach are well-known and very common diagnostic procedures: factor, correlation and regression models and methods; models and methods of semantic differentials; multidimensional scaling methods, etc.

These methods are used in conjunction with formal data processing techniques; in some useful cases, they make it possible to determine a minimum set of understandable features (“axes” of the selected coordinate system), with the help of which it is possible to describe the diagnosed object or class of objects with sufficient completeness.

From a theoretical point of view, it is important that the second version of the diagnostic approach deals with relations of non-equivalence, i.e. those that make it possible to distinguish and order the objects being examined. A number of problems arise in choosing a measure for such ordering, since here, unlike the third option, which will be discussed below, this measure cannot always be defined in a natural way. It is in this sense that one of the most acute problems of this kind of diagnostics is the standardization of assessments of various scales in test batteries.

The third version of the diagnostic approach can be defined as diagnostics based on a standard, i.e., diagnostics that is carried out by comparing or relating the object under study to some standard. Two cases are possible: the standard coincides with the real object or it is not among the real objects.

In the first case, we talk about identification by an empirical standard. There are many examples of this kind: qualified specialists, experts, instructors, etc. can act as empirical standards. They often serve as real guidelines for solving many problems of selection, training and education.

In the case when the standard itself is not among the real objects, it is advisable, in our opinion, to talk about diagnostics using an “ideal standard” or, which is probably better, about diagnostics using an ideal object. If we proceed from the requirements of practice, i.e., consider this problem from the point of view of providing practical problems with fundamental research, then such an ideal object should act as one of the main categories of psychological analysis. If we move in the other direction - from theory to practice, then the ideal object acts as a valid measure of comparison of real objects (since it must contain the most important, from the point of view of the problems being solved, properties and qualities of the real object).

In most real-life problems, diagnostics based on an ideal object is the most promising way to introduce psychological knowledge into practice.

We have dwelt in some detail on the analysis of the main diagnostic methods in practical psychology, not only because they are widespread, but also because these methods actually form the basis of any research and practical work. It is quite obvious that, before somehow using the arsenal of psychological knowledge for practical purposes (be it in research or clinic, school, production or management), it is necessary to accurately define the object with which we are dealing. This is the essence of using psychodiagnostic methods. It is clear that the analysis of the application of other practical methods (forecast, influence and control) should also lead to the formulation of many new theoretical problems.

The task of forecasting is the second task of practical psychology after diagnosis. Its solution provides, in particular, an answer to the question of what will happen to a real individual whom we are examining at the moment if the conditions of his life change. For example, will he cope with solving some new problem; how his special abilities will develop; how the skills will function, whether it is possible to maintain the usual norms of behavior in unusual operating conditions (with increased mental tension, in conditions of danger, etc.).

The main difference between prognostic methods and diagnostic methods is that there is virtually no direct contact between the specialist and the actual object being examined at the moment. Forecasting tasks require mandatory reference to theoretical constructs. Thus, the function of prognosis in practical psychology is immeasurably greater than the function of diagnosis; it includes theoretical concepts and theoretical knowledge of psychology. Moreover, the very idea of forecasting, even if empirical forecasting methods are used, is based on very strong theoretical assumptions that have not been fully proven within the framework of psychological science itself.

We are talking about the so-called principle of continuity (Zabrodin, 1980, 2002) or the postulate of gradual change, which is very often, although implicitly, used to justify forecasts when solving practical problems.

Let us explain the essence of this postulate. Let us consider, as an example, the case when a psychologist experimentally models some possible situations and tasks that arise in real activity; Moreover, the empirical conditions do not differ too much from those for which the forecast will be made. In these experimental model conditions, the psychologist observes some psychological—personal and behavioral—effects. In this case, in accordance with the postulate of gradual changes, it can be argued that the effects observed in such an experiment will differ little from the expected reality, i.e. they can be used as a sufficient basis for a prediction.

In diagnostics, theoretical knowledge of psychology acts as a certain initial “coordinate system”, and the work is carried out using empirical methods. The forecast is much more based on deep methodological principles and chooses theoretical procedures as its methodological tool: with their help, empirical knowledge about a person is transformed, i.e., a transition is made from existing, initial situations to those situations for which the forecast is formed.

The function of psychological influence and control, as well as the functions of diagnosis and prognosis, is implemented using special methods and techniques of influencing the mental qualities, behavior, and activities of a real person. It is in this function of practical psychology that methodological problems are most acute, and its social, humanitarian and even ideological role is most clearly manifested: here, as in a mirror, the real goals of society are reflected. In some cases, this is the strengthening of social and racial inequality, the depersonalization of a person, the stratification of the ruling elite, which occurs against the backdrop of powerful propaganda of “convergence”, “social partnership”, etc. In other cases - in socially oriented societies - this is social assistance and clear social policy , democratization and humanization of spheres of public life, support and development of the personality of each member of society.

It is fundamentally important that the methods of psychological influence and management provide for the synthesis of psychological knowledge from different areas of psychological science, and, naturally, the task of methodological and theoretical justification for such a synthesis arises. The system of control methods used by practical psychology, of course, must have a hierarchical structure and include such diverse methods of influence as direct and indirect control; influence by word, example, relationships and living conditions; inclusion of the individual in public and self-government; management through targeted selection, selection and training of people; the use of various methods of organizing labor technology and labor regimes, including the combination and division of various types of labor, the development of new forms of behavior, managing the choice of available forms of behavior and some other methods of influence.

The system of psychological management methods seems to reflect the system of research methods, directing psychological knowledge into the areas of practical activity of people. One of its main features is that the techniques and procedures used in practice are often radically different from known psychological procedures.

In this sense, many methods of influence are, at first glance, “non-psychological” in nature: for example, limiting the available means and methods of activity. (However, it should be remembered that it is the limitation, in particular the control, of some influencing factors and conditions that is a mandatory requirement, even an attribute of a psychological experiment.)

At the same time, this is precisely the most difficult task of psychological science: in order to implement the management function, methods must be developed that have a deep psychological basis. These methods need to be brought to a form that would “work” in real life, which means that they would cease to be “psychological” and would turn into real social, interpersonal and other relationships of people.

Thus, it is quite natural that practical psychology performs its functions with the help of special techniques and methods: these include psychodiagnostics, psychological prognosis and psychological management.

Among the specific methods of psychodiagnostics, we should highlight, firstly, introscopic methods:

direct - such as introspection (including included, one of the variants of which is widely known as the labor method), introspection, etc.;

indirect methods: in-depth interviews, anamnestic questionnaires, self-assessment questionnaires, etc.

Yu. M. Zabrodin called another group of psychodiagnostic methods extrascopic: observation, survey, questionnaire - expert assessment, assessment of other people (for example, MY, GOL, etc.); situational tests of special abilities and individual functions, activity model tests, etc.

A separate group consists of complex methods: test batteries; multiscale and multidimensional questionnaires; projective tests, which are based on knowledge, assimilation and implementation of social norms (ideals, values, models and rules of behavior, etc.). The goal of all psychodiagnostic methods is to identify the object being examined in terms of psychological knowledge, and the result is the construction of an understandable “psychological portrait” of this object.

Methods of psychological forecasting (calculation) are based on knowledge of psychological laws and include the following forms:

prediction of existence (when the unknown is assumed based on a set of known qualities);

forecast of successful functioning (including functioning in other conditions);

forecast of sustainability (existence in extreme conditions and determination of the boundaries of this existence, for example, under conditions of stress), etc.

Methods of psychological influence and management (including correction) are based on knowledge of the effects and mechanisms of action of certain factors that influence the properties and states of the psyche, the behavior and activities of people. These methods include control through the action of external factors, such as, for example, factors of social influence - command, coercion, persuasion, suggestion, infection, transfer (imitation), encouragement, punishment, etc.;

management of habitat, working and living conditions;

management through relationships, through influence on the system of relationships in which the subject is included.

It is possible, in principle, to control through the action of internal factors of self-regulation: self-education, self-government, auto-training, group training, etc.

Among the methods of psychological management, it is advisable to distinguish between functional management and evolutionary (developmental) management.

In all cases, we can talk about different psychological mechanisms and different “psychological addresses” of the action of control factors. So, for example, in psychological practice one can find “coercive” control or “pressure”, which is carried out in a passive form - through the establishment or removal of restrictions on the “degrees of freedom” of the subject’s movement; or in an active form - through setting tasks and goals, coercion and order.

Another example is provided by the so-called “cognitive” control mechanisms: they work through persuasion (argumentation) and suggestion (trust, faith). One of the options for cognitive management is “information” management in virtual reality - through the information base for decision-making, the formation of opinions and assessments, the use of significant information and misinformation, etc. It is clear that the development and classification of various forms of psychological management will require special additional efforts.

The variety of specific forms and technologies for implementing the functions and methods of practical psychology discussed above makes the problem of scientific justification, reliability assessment and determination of the limits of action of these methods especially relevant.