Theory of communication psychology.
Communication is the interaction of people, which includes 3 parties.
a) The communicative side - as the exchange of information;
b) The interactive side - as interaction;
c) The perceptual side - as the perception of a person by a person.
The communicative side of communication. In the foreground is “what is being said?”, and not “by whom” and “how”.
The following types of communication are distinguished:
- Cognitive communication – receiving and transmitting information.
- Expressive communication – exchange of emotions, opinions, views.
- Persuasive communication - with the goal of getting a person to do something useful for us.
- Social-ritual communication - with the aim of maintaining norms and customs.
Decoding
After the information is received by the addressee, he decodes it in every possible way and rearranges it in his own way. That is, the stage itself is understood as the recipient’s translation of information into his own thoughts. All the symbols conveyed by the addressee will be fully assimilated by the addressee, and he will be able to understand what they wanted to convey to him. There are times when the recipient's response is not necessary, then communication stops at this stage.
This expresses an unequal system of communication, since when the sender transmits information, he first formulates the idea according to its meaning, then encodes it and transmits it. The addressee learns the meaning of the message conveyed to him along with passing through the decoding stage.
Means of communication.
Speech (verbal means) is the most universal means of communication, because with its help information is transmitted most accurately with the least loss.
Non-speech (non-verbal) means - facial expressions, pantomime, postures, gestures, distance between partners
There are also 2 special subgroups.
Extralinguistics - laughter, tears, snoring, etc.
Paralinguistics - sounds that accompany speech.
With the help of speech, a person conveys information, and with the help of nonverbals, his attitude towards it. When there is a contradiction between verbal and nonverbal expressions, people tend to trust the nonverbals.
As we have already said, communication distance—the distance between partners—is a nonverbal factor. There are 4 communication zones
- Intimate zone – 0 – 45 cm.
- Personal (personal) zone – 45 – 120 cm.
- Social zone – 120 – 350 cm.
- Public zone – from 350 cm and above.
It should be noted that the sizes of these zones vary in different cultures. In the Middle East these zones are closer, in the west they are further.
The interactive side is communication as the interaction of people. When entering into interaction, people can be guided by various motives.
- The motive of maximizing everyone's gain. (Cooperation)
- The motive of maximizing one's own gain. (Selfishness)
- The motive of maximizing the gains of others. (Altruism)
- The motive of maximizing one's own gain while minimizing the gain of others. (Competition)
- The motive for minimizing the gains of others
- The motive for minimizing differences in winnings. (Equality)
Communication is successful if the motives of the parties coincide.
Argumentation has the greatest influence on the interlocutor.
It is a way of persuasion through meaningful logical evidence. In order to make the argumentation of your position convincing, experts recommend using such methods
• providing facts, figures, comparisons, etc.;
• identifying contradictions in the interlocutor’s presentation;
• use of contrast “so..., but...”;
• ignoring the following evidence by the interlocutor;
• visible support, when we first give reasons in favor of the interlocutor’s arguments, and then say “but …” Since the interlocutor feels as if he is obliged to you, it is calmer to accept your argumentation;
• use of repetition, this can strengthen the position;
• clarification if the evidence does not sound convincing.
Levels of communication.
- Conventional is the most human level of communication with the extension “nearby”.
- Primitive - a person is treated not as a person, but as a thing, either necessary or not. In relation to subordinates, an extension is carried out “from above”, and in relation to superiors, a voluntary extension is carried out “from below”.
- Manipulative is a game that must be won. Winning means benefit, either material or psychological. Psychological benefit - the possibility of an extension “from above” to inflict psychological injections on a partner with impunity.
- Business – conventional level in business cooperation.
- Gaming is similar to the conventional one, but surpasses it in the subtlety of its content and richness of shades. The purpose of such communication is the desire to help another person free himself from shortcomings and better understand himself. This is acceptable in psychotherapy groups and between close people.
- The formal level of communication is contact of masks.
- Spiritual – in relation to charismatic individuals
The perceptual side of communication reflects people’s perception and understanding of each other. The main mechanism of this side of communication is social perception - the perception of a person’s external signs while simultaneously assessing another person, his attitude towards us, as well as predicting his behavior.
Basic types of social perception.
- Identification is the ability to put oneself in the place of a communication partner and look at the situation through his eyes.
- Empathy - “feeling” into the state of another
- Attraction is the experience and formation of a primary attitude towards a person as the basis for cognition of this person.
Noise
Noise does not have a place in the overall list of stages, since it is most likely just a factor in the completion of all stages. But it is quite important, since extraneous environmental noise can cause complications in understanding information. Also, the message may be poorly heard, so the recipient will understand something completely different, false. Noise sources can include loud music, construction sounds, machine horns, and much more.
To prevent noise from causing communication complications, you need to choose a quiet, calm place with a pleasant, relaxing atmosphere.
Source
Stereotypes of perception.
- The halo effect is the tendency to judge positive character traits based on the perception of appearance. Attribution of negative properties is the anti-halo effect.
- Attitude is an unconscious desire to think in a certain way about a person or treat him under the influence of someone else’s opinion or one’s own experience.
- Causal attribution is the attribution of motives for behavior based on attitudes.
In order to get rid of stereotypes or patterns of perception, it is important to have reflection - to be able to reflect yourself.
Stages of communication.
Communication or conversation will be effective or successful when
a) People are satisfied with it;
b) A solution has been found and adopted that everyone agrees with.
Thus, the conclusion suggests itself that in order for communication to be effective, it is necessary to go through four stages of communication.
- Contact.
- Orientation.
- Finding a joint solution
- Decision-making.
Contact. This stage is very important, since it is at this moment that trusting contact is established, which helps to quickly come to a common understanding of the situation, and then to solving the problem. The contact stage can last from a few seconds to several hours. For example, when the interlocutors greet each other and get down to business, then the contact stage is very short. But sometimes people first talk for a long time on abstract topics and only after that get down to business - then the contact stage can be larger than the rest of the communication.
Orientation. At this stage, it is necessary to orientate yourself in the interlocutor, in his problem and orient the interlocutor in your understanding of the problem.
Finding a joint solution. Here the main emphasis is on the jointness of the decision, that is, both interlocutors, as partners, must come to a common decision.
Decision making – in order to emphasize the significance of the decision made. It happens that people have talked, and everyone is left with the impression that everything seems to have been decided, but it is not clear what the decision is and who is responsible. Therefore, at this stage, the most important thing is to clearly state the decision made and make sure that it is understood equally.
Leaving contact or a farewell ritual is also important.
Stage "Contact". "The Angle Rule". Behind any person’s back there is a corner into which it is easy to drive him, but there is no decent way out of the corner. There are only two unworthy ones. The first is to try to win through aggression. But still lose. The second is to agree, give in, and then feel negative emotions, that is, immediately lose. Thus, there are two rules of the corner: do not drive another into a corner, i.e. do not condemn him without sufficient grounds, and do not go into this corner yourself, i.e. don't be offended.
It is impossible to solve a problem without establishing contact!
Rules for making contact.
The first rule is greeting. Three components: calling a person by name, smiling, shaking hands.
The second rule is that eye contact must be maintained 10-15% of the time of communication.
The third rule is reducing social distance.
Fourth, tell the person about his importance.
Fifth, don’t have serious conversations while walking.
Stage "Orientation". To orient a person in your understanding of the problem and to orient yourself in how your interlocutor understands the problem:
You need to be able to speak;
You need to be able to listen;
Pay attention to nonverbal manifestations.
Map of reality. Dogs. Generalization, omission, distortion.
People think through images, sounds and sensations.
- Any word spoken or read evokes an image in them.
- Everyone has their own dog in their head.
- Internal pictures and images are combined in the head into entire films. It is these films that are remembered as memories of what was said or read.
- Words are buttons, a trigger that initiates the process of imagination.
There are three processes involved in creating the space of internal representations in humans.
- Generalization;
- Omission;
- Distortion.
Generalization. Generalizations help us learn quickly. Generalizations can limit our world.
Omissions. We can turn off one or another channel of perception and not perceive all the information available around us at the moment.
Distortion. Without the process of distortion, the world could not change and develop. But this process also has its negative sides. For example, through the process of distortion, people develop fears.
The biggest mistakes people make.
- People often think that others think just like them.
- People are often sure that in any situation there can be only one true perception and only one interpretation of events - their interpretation.
- People often believe that when they say a word, for example, "dog", other people mean and see the same thing as they do.
How to achieve the most complete mutual understanding with others? There are several things to do.
- Firstly, it is to realize the subjectivity of human perception of the world around us.
- Secondly, learn to listen and hear a person.
To do this, you need to master several techniques. One of them is the technique of active listening.
There are three ways to listen:
- Negative evaluation, ignoring and self-centeredness.
- Questioning, making comments about the course of the conversation are passive listening techniques. With their help, you can show your partner that “I am listening to you,” but in reality, listening does not help.
- Active listening techniques.
The fourth stage is decision making.
When making a decision, it is advisable to be guided by the following recommendations:
• observing the interlocutor, determine the moment to end the meeting;
• formulate a minimum goal in advance, think about alternative solutions to the problem and, sensing the mood of the interlocutor, offer the best one for consideration
• show respect for the interlocutor’s proposal, listen carefully to his arguments regarding the decision;
• demonstrate confidence even if the goal is not achieved.
Active Listening Techniques
involve the following actions (verbalizations):
- Pronunciation. The interlocutor repeats the partner’s statements verbatim, and he can start with the following phrase: “As I understand you, ...,” “In other words, ...,” etc.
- Paraphrasing. The interlocutors reproduce the partner’s statement in an abbreviated and generalized form, briefly formulating the most significant things in his words. “Your main ideas, as I understand it, are...”; "So, .."
- Development of the idea. The interlocutor is trying to draw a logical consequence from the partner’s statement: “Based on what you said, it turns out that...”
Verbalizations perform the following functions:
- Allows you to collect information.
- Allows you to display the most important information.
- Helps clarify whether you understood your partner correctly.
- Helps you remember information better.
- Helps to comprehend information.
- Helps to summarize.
- Helps you stay on top of the problem.
- It is a means of orientation towards a partner.
- Helps you better understand your problem.
- They help reinforce your partner’s point of view.
- Gives time to think.
- Verbalization helps to use the pause mechanism.
The “search for a joint solution” stage. It is also often called the argumentation stage, since here you need to argue your point of view and work with your partner’s arguments.
What should you do with the arguments that your interlocutor has already expressed? Some of them need to be counter-argued, some arguments need to be analyzed, considered from different points of view
There are two main strategies for argumentation: bottom-up and top-down.
Stage "Decision making"
The fourth stage is the stage of making a decision and leaving contact. The success of passing and completing this stage depends on how effective the communication was, that is, whether it met both criteria for effectiveness. It is very important to pay attention to ensuring that a single decision is made and that all participants understand this decision equally. The second important point is that all participants in the communication are satisfied with both the decision itself and the decision-making process, and, consequently, with each other. In such a situation, leaving contact occurs naturally; it is easy for everyone to say pleasant words to each other.
This stage involves arguing your position and counter-arguing the position of your interlocutor.
As the experience of managers shows, when discussing a problem, it is advisable to adhere to some rules that facilitate the understanding of the interlocutor and help to obtain complete information:
• listen carefully to your interlocutor and try to adequately perceive what he is saying, to hear him;
• try to use dialogue rather than monologue;
• give the interlocutor the opportunity to calmly express his opinion;
• present your information clearly, concisely and consistently;
• select methods of argument depending on the individual characteristics of the interlocutor (his level of thinking, age, gender, type of temperament, etc.);
• present evidence in the correct form, etc.
Manipulative communication
Manipulation. - hidden control of human behavior, carried out for the sake of some benefit of the one who controls. A person who, in his own interests, controls the behavior of another against his will is called a manipulator. Manipulation of consciousness is present in all spheres of public life.
A manipulator is a kind of puppeteer who uses “threads” to control others. Such threads can be human complexes, ambitions, public opinion, spiritual and moral values. Who uses manipulation and why:
- Manipulation is used in cases where the purpose of manipulation is an action or intention that is immoral in the eyes of society;
- They are manipulated by individuals for whom it is impossible to express their intentions or requests due to the influence of various complexes (feelings of guilt, feelings of superiority, increased anxiety, worries about the future, and others);
- Naturally, politicians always manipulate. Just out of habit, so as not to lose shape;
- Journalists, TV presenters, investigators, prosecutors, lawyers and other lawyers definitely manipulate.
- manipulated by doctors, teachers and psychologists.
A manipulative system can be defined as a manipulative or gaming stereotype. Four main manipulative schemes can be distinguished.
- An active manipulator attempts to control others through active methods. He avoids showing his weakness in relationships, accepting the role of being full of strength. Usually attracted by his social position.
- A passive manipulator is the opposite of an active one. He decides that since he cannot control life, he will give up effort and allow himself to be controlled by an active manipulator
- The competitive manipulator views life as a state that requires constant vigilance, since here you can win or lose - there is no other option. It oscillates between the methods of the first or second and can therefore be considered as something in between.
- The fourth form of a manipulative system is a system of indifferent manipulation. The manipulator plays the role indifferently, hoping for nothing and trying to escape. “I don’t care” is his favorite phrase.
The first sign is that a person behaves unnaturally, insincerely and at the same time in a rote manner, i.e. plays the role that is most convenient for him at the moment. False notes in the voice, exaggerated or, conversely, unnaturally suppressed emotions are also a sign of manipulation. Manipulation, in addition to all this, also has verbal manifestations - these are all kinds of verbal cliches, cliches, banal figures of speech that do not carry a semantic load.
Metalanguage.
As we found out earlier, on average 60–80% of personal communication occurs through nonverbal channels, but verbal communication is also extremely important. Like body language, metalanguage is based on “intuition,” “premonition,” “sixth sense,” and the understanding that the words and thoughts of the interlocutor are not at all the same thing.
The most typical annoying metawords are “you see,” “so to speak,” “well,” and the latest masterpiece of our time, “as if.” These phrases are most common among the less educated part of society, although they are very often found in the media.
If you remove all meta-expressions from speech, then the conversation will become short, sharp and exclusively semantic. We will begin to seem rude, cruel and inconsiderate to each other. Metalanguage softens the blows we strike at each other, allows us to manipulate the other person, achieve our own goals and release emotions without causing mortal offense.
Encoding and channel selection
Having gone through the previous stage of the communication process, the information is still “green” and it is too early to present it. The sender must play with it with appropriate gestures and codes so that the addressee sees interest and perceives the message more fully.
The addressee also has the right to choose the method of transmitting the message, as they can be varied. If face-to-face communication is not possible, then email, video or audio messages, or a simple SMS message are quite suitable. It is also possible to send a written message, but today few people use this type. The main thing is to ensure that the information is not distorted due to the channel used.
In modern communication theory, it is assumed that the best way to conduct a dialogue or polylogue is to use several methods of transmitting information. On average, using two channels is quite optimal. There should be a difference between the time of information transmission over two channels, since a one-time message will look quite ridiculous. It is important to choose the right moment and use the most common channel option first.
For example, first the addressee sends a message via SMS, and after some period he discusses the topic in more depth with the person live. In this way, communication will be successful as the information will be better understood through repetition.
