Group membership and social identity - The concept of identity in psychology

The concept of identity in psychology

Among identity researchers there is still no consensus on who is responsible for the discovery of this concept for psychological science. If in philosophy it is possible to trace the continuity of the development of the concept of “identity” from antiquity through German classical philosophy to postmodernism, then in psychology this is quite difficult, since the concept, having entered the terminological apparatus of psychological science, acquired many meanings due to the multiplicity of theoretical paradigms of its interpretations.

Interest in problems of identity is associated with the formation of a humanistic paradigm in the humanities, which characterized the problems of freedom and responsibility, the meaningfulness of life. The appearance of the concept of “identity” in psychology is usually associated with E. Erikson. However, modern scientists find the origins of this concept in the works of Z. Freud “Interpretation of Dreams” and “Group Psychology and Analysis of the Ego.” In The Interpretation of Dreams, published at the turn of the 20th century, Freud first used the term “identification,” which he defined as the unconscious identification of one’s own subject with another subject and viewed as a mechanism for assimilating the behavior of significant others and forming a superego. By the time of the publication of Group Psychology and Ego-Analysis in 1914, Freud had already given the concept of identification a broader meaning, defining it not only as an unconscious connection between a child and his parents, predominantly emotional in nature, but also as an important mechanism of interaction between the individual and the social group. The use of the same term - "identification" - for two different levels of human relationships was fully justified from Freud's theoretical point of view, since, in his opinion, early childhood experience of ambivalent emotional relationships, which subsequently passes into the sphere of social interaction, lies at the basis both love for one's own group and aggression towards others.

It should be noted that in modern psychology it is customary to distinguish the concept of “identification” from the concept of “identity”. If identity is understood today, following E. Erikson, as a certain state of self-identification, then identification is a set of processes and mechanisms leading to the achievement of this state.

E. Erikson himself considered W. James the creator of the concept of identity. Although James did not use this term and used the word “character” instead, it was he who first described in detail the keen and compelling sense of identity and completeness that modern psychology calls identity, asking the famous question: “Can a person get out of bed in the morning and confidently assert that he is the same person who went to bed last night"?

Among the theoretical forerunners of Erikson's concept of identity, one cannot fail to mention K. Jaspers, whose ideas reflect reflections on the relationship between “I” and “Thou” that arose at that time in existentialist-oriented philosophical and anthropological studies. In his dissertation "General Psychopathology", published in 1913, Jaspers defined identity as one of the four formal aspects of self-consciousness - the awareness that I remain who I have always been, and that all events in my life happen to me, and not with someone else. An example of a personality disorder, according to Jaspers, are statements by people with schizophrenia that what happened to them before the onset of psychosis actually happened to someone other than them.

And yet, despite the extensive history of analysis of the category “identity,” it acquired the status of a separate scientific concept in the works of E. Erikson. Erikson began his research in the 1940s to study the "war neuroses" of the US Army, and in 1967 he summarized the results of his many years of research on identity in his book Identity: Youth and Crisis. In it, he presents identity as internal continuity and identity that exists in the context of continuous personal development and performs adaptive functions. Identity is a dynamic entity that changes throughout a person's life. It makes it possible to see your life from the point of view of its continuity, organically intertwining the past and the future, and integrating them into the experience of the present, adapting to changes in life situations.

E. Erikson believed that personal identity, in addition to natural inclinations, needs and abilities, combines a significant identity and strong, stable social roles. Subsequently, thanks to the work of G. Tajfel and his followers, the social aspects of identity acquired a relatively independent status in the psychological literature, which led to debate about the connection between personal and social identity, which continues to this day. To date, there is no clear solution to this problem.

Traditional for modern psychology, the interpretation of personal identity as a set of characteristics that distinguishes a particular person from other people, and social identity as the result of awareness of one’s belonging to a group with the acceptance of characteristics characteristic of this group, implies the opposition of these aspects of identity.

Recently, many researchers have tended to accept the “one basket model” and make their hypotheses purely theoretical or confirm them empirically. Within cognitive psychology, the idea that behind each social category there is a specific content based on those attributes that are usually interpreted as the content of personal identity has gained acceptance. On the other hand, by describing themselves as “happy” or “good”, individuals identify themselves with groups of “happy” and “good” people and differentiate themselves from “sad” and “bad” people, which makes personality characteristics not fully individualized.

The idea that social and personal identities do not contradict each other, but are complementary elements of a person’s identity, is also characteristic of representatives of the theory of social perception by S. Moskovich. Thus, W. Doyce notes that personality can be considered not only as a set of unique characteristics, reducing the individual level only to differences. Both differences and similarities can be found both at the level of personal identity and at the level of social identity. In addition, he puts forward an empirically based hypothesis that personal identity can be considered as a social representation, resulting from the assimilation of socially widespread ideas about human personality.

As can be seen from the two approaches described above, one of the key questions that researchers are trying to answer is which type of identity is primary in relation to the other. In general, researchers recognize the primacy of social identity and its indirect influence on the formation of personal identity.

Thus, it can be stated that at the present stage of development of social psychology, the problems of correlation between social and personal identity remain unresolved. The most widely accepted view today is that social and personal identities are complementary rather than contradictory components of human identity.

How to write a term paper on speech therapy

07.09.2010 244865

These guidelines are compiled to help students gain an understanding of the content and structure of coursework in speech therapy.

Logopedia of pedagogical science that studies anomalies of speech development with normal hearing, explores the manifestations, nature and mechanisms of speech disorders, develops the scientific basis for overcoming and preventing them means of special training and education.

The subject of speech therapy as a science is speech disorders and the process of training and education of persons with speech disorders.

The object of study is a person suffering from a speech disorder.

The main task of speech therapy as a science is the study, prevention and elimination of various types of speech disorders.

Coursework in speech therapy is a student's scientific and experimental research. This type of educational activity, provided for by the educational and professional program and curriculum, contributes to the acquisition of skills in working with literature, analyzing and summarizing literary sources in order to determine the range of insufficiently studied problems, determining the content and methods of experimental research, processing skills and qualitative analysis of the results obtained. The need to complete coursework in speech therapy is due to the updating of knowledge concerning the content, organization, principles, methods and techniques of speech therapy work.

As a rule, during their studies, students must write two term papers - theoretical and practical.

The first course work should be devoted to the analysis and synthesis of general and specialized literature on the chosen topic. Based on this analysis, it is necessary to justify and develop a method of ascertaining (diagnostic) experiment.

In the second course work, it is necessary to provide an analysis of the results obtained during the ascertaining experiment, as well as determine the directions and content of speech therapy work, and select adequate methods and techniques of correction.

So, let’s present the general requirements for the content and design of coursework in speech therapy.

The initial and most important stage of working on a course project is the choice of a topic, which is either proposed by the supervisor or chosen by the student independently from a list of topics that are consistent with the areas of scientific research of the department.

Each topic can be modified, considered in different aspects, but taking into account a theoretical and practical approach. Having chosen a topic, the student needs to think through in detail its specific content, areas of work, practical material, etc., which should be reflected both in the formulation of the topic and in the further construction of the study. It should be recalled that the chosen topic may not only have a purely theoretical orientation, for example: “Dysarthria. Characteristics of the defect”, “Classification of dysgraphia”, but also take into account the practical significance of the problem under consideration, for example: “Speech therapy work on speech correction for dysarthria”. It should also be taken into account that when formulating a topic, excessive detail should be avoided, for example: “Formation of prosodic components of speech in preschoolers of the sixth year of life attending a preschool institution for children with severe speech impairments.”

The course work includes such mandatory parts as: introduction, three chapters, conclusion, bibliography and appendix.

The text of the term paper begins with the title page . An example of its design can be seen here.

Then the content of the work is given, in which the names of chapters, paragraphs, and sections are formulated in strict accordance with the content of the thesis. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the text, each subsequent chapter and paragraph begins on a new page. At the end of each chapter, the materials are summarized and conclusions are formulated.

The introduction reveals the relevance of the problem under consideration in general and the topic being studied in particular; the problem, subject, object, and purpose of the study are defined. In accordance with the goal and hypothesis, objectives and a set of research methods aimed at achieving the objectives must be defined.

The relevance of the topic lies in reflecting the current level of pedagogical science and practice, meeting the requirements of novelty and usefulness.

When defining the research problem, it is important to indicate what practical tasks it will help to implement in training and educating people with speech pathology.

The object of research is understood as certain aspects of pedagogical reality, perceived through a system of theoretical and practical knowledge. The ultimate goal of any research is to improve this object.

The subject of research is some part, property, element of an object, i.e. the subject of research always indicates a specific aspect of the object that is to be studied and about which the researcher wants to gain new knowledge. An object is a part of an object.

You can give an example of the formulation of the object, subject and problem of research:

– The object of the study is the speech activity of preschool children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The subject of the study is the features of intonation speech of children with phonetic-phonemic speech disorders.

– The research problem is to determine effective directions for speech therapy work on the formation of intonation expressiveness of speech in the system of correctional intervention.

The purpose of the study contributes to the specification of the object being studied. The goal of any research is to solve a specific problem. The goal is specified in tasks taking into account the subject of research.

The research objectives are formulated in a certain sequence, which determines the logic of the research. The research objectives are set on the basis of a theoretical analysis of the problem and an assessment of the state of its solution in practice.

The first chapter is an analysis of literary sources, which examines the state of this problem in historical and modern aspects, and presents the most important theoretical principles that formed the basis of the study.

When writing the first chapter, you should pay attention to the fact that the text of the course work must be written in a scientific style. When presenting scientific material, it is necessary to comply with the following requirements:

– Specificity – a review of only those sources that are necessary to disclose only a given topic or solve only a given problem;

– Clarity – which is characterized by semantic coherence and integrity of individual parts of the text;

– Logicality – which provides for a certain structure of presentation of the material;

– Reasoning – evidence of thoughts (why this and not otherwise);

– Precision of wording, excluding ambiguous interpretation of the authors’ statements.

A literary review of the state of the problem being studied should not be reduced to a consistent presentation of literary sources. It should present a generalized description of the literature: highlight the main directions (currents, concepts, points of view), analyze in detail and evaluate the most fundamental works of representatives of these directions.

When writing a work, the student must correctly use literary materials, make references to the authors and sources from which the results of scientific research are borrowed. Failure to provide required references will reduce your coursework grade.

As a rule, in coursework on speech therapy, references to literary sources are formatted as follows: the number of the cited source in the general list of references is placed in square brackets. For example: General speech underdevelopment is a speech pathology in which there is a persistent lag in the formation of all components of the language system: phonetics, vocabulary and grammar [17].

When using quotations, in square brackets, in addition to indicating the source number, the page number from which this excerpt is taken is indicated, for example: Speech rhythm is based on a physiological and intellectual basis, since, firstly, it is directly related to the rhythm of breathing. Secondly, being an element that performs a communicative function, “correlates with meaning, i.e. controlled intellectually” [23, P.40].

However, course work should not be of a purely abstract nature, so you should not abuse the unreasonable abundance of citations. Quoting should be logically justified, convincing and used only when really necessary.

In the second chapter , devoted to experimental research, the organization should be described and the program of the ascertaining experiment should be presented. The survey methodology, as a rule, consists of a description of several series of tasks, with detailed instructions, visual and lexical material, the procedure for completing tasks by experiment participants, and scoring criteria. This chapter also provides a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the results obtained.

When analyzing the results of an experiment, it is necessary to use a scoring system. Examples of various criteria for quantitative and qualitative assessment are presented in the following works:

– Glukhov V.P. Formation of coherent speech in preschool children with general speech underdevelopment. - M.: Arkti, 2002. - 144 p.

– Fotekova T.A. Test methodology for diagnosing oral speech of primary schoolchildren. - M.: Arkti, 2000. - 56 p.

– Levchenko I.Yu. Pathopsychology: Theory and practice. - M.: Academy, 2000. - 232 p.

In order to visually present the results obtained during the experimental study, it is recommended to use tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. Histograms can be used in a variety of ways - columnar, cylindrical, planar, volumetric, etc. An example of the design of tables, figures, and histograms can be found here.

The third chapter provides a rationale for the proposed methods and techniques and reveals the content of the main stages of correctional work.

The conclusion contains a summary of the material presented and the main conclusions formulated by the author.

The bibliography must contain at least 25 sources. The list includes bibliographic information about the sources used in preparing the work. An example of its design can be seen here.

In the application you can present bulky tables or illustrations, examination protocols, observation records, products of activity (drawings, written works of children), notes from speech therapy classes, etc.

The volume of one course work must be at least 30 pages of typewritten text.

In general, coursework in speech therapy is the basis for a future thesis, in which the study of the begun problem can be continued, but from the standpoint of a different approach or a comparative analysis of the disorders being studied in different age categories of people with different types of speech disorders.

The content and format of theses in speech therapy can be found here.

Literature:

1. How to write a term paper on speech therapy: Methodological recommendations. Educational and methodological manual / Comp. Artemova E.E., Tishina L.A. / Ed. Orlova O.S. – M.: MGOPU, 2008. – 35 p.

2. Research work of students in the system of higher professional pedagogical education (specialty 031800 - Speech therapy). Methodological recommendations for completing the thesis / Compiled by. L.V. Lopatina, V.I. Lipakova, G.G. Golubeva. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A. I. Herzen, 2002. - 140 p.

Personal social identity

Let us now turn to the characteristics of the immediate object of our research - social identity.

The concept of social identity describes how other people define a person based on broad social categories or characteristics, such as age, occupation, or ethnicity. It is the components of a person’s “I” that are experienced at the level of awareness of his belonging to a group.

Social identity is the result of the social identification process, which refers to the process of defining oneself through membership in a social group.

Social identification performs important functions both at the group and personal levels: through this process, society gets the opportunity to include the individual in the system of social connections and relationships, and the individual realizes the basic need for membership in the group, which provides protection, opportunities for self-realization, and evaluation by others and influence on the group.

One of the first to speak about the importance of social identity was Kurt Lewin, who believed that a person needs a strong sense of group identity to maintain a sense of internal well-being.

Almost none of the main theoretical orientations of social psychology of the twentieth century ignored this phenomenon and proposed their own views on the problem of social identity.

Psychoanalysis, of course, made a very important contribution to the development of the problem of social identity. And here, too, one cannot fail to mention the name of Erik Erikson, a psychoanalyst, thanks to whom the concept of “identity” received the status of an independent scientific category.

E. Erikson developed the concept of psychosocial identity, which is close to the modern understanding of the phenomenon of social identity. According to Erikson (1976), only part of the personality is conscious, part is preconscious, and the majority is unconscious and may even be subject to repression. Psychosocial identity is a product of interaction between society and the individual. The mediating tool of identification is “ideology” - a systematized set of ideas and ideals.

Social identity is the part of self-awareness that arises from a person's awareness of his membership in a social group (or groups) along with the value and emotional meaning associated with this membership.

Identity and Identification: What's the Difference?

In short and in simple words, identification is the process of a person identifying himself with a group, imitation of it, the desire to conform, and identity is the result of identification, a person’s idea of ​​himself as a member of a group. Sometimes, even quite often, these concepts are used as synonyms. However, from a psychological point of view, this is wrong. As Erikson noted, identity (result) begins where identification (process) ends.

Characteristics of intergroup relations

When studying group membership (intergroup relations), it is necessary to distinguish between the categories of “identity” and “identification”. They are considered to be close in meaning, but differ significantly as scientific terms.

Identification in a general sense is the equation of something with something. In the humanities and social sciences, especially in psychology, it is customary to consider various types of identification. For example, it is often defined as the identification of an unknown material object with an already known object based on the correspondence of their respective significant characteristics.

There is also such a category as personal identification (self-identification). It lies in a person’s developed attitude towards himself. S. Freud, as the founder of psychoanalysis, was the first to introduce this concept into science, but it is most widely used in social psychology.

Freud originally defined identification as an unconscious process of imitation. He believed that this is one of the psychological mechanisms of human defense. In social psychology, identification is the most important condition for socialization and assimilation of patterns and models of human social behavior (especially children).

In the process of socialization, a person must accept his social roles, realizing that he belongs to a certain group:

• Age,
• Professional,
• Religious,
• Political,
• Racial,
• Ethnic.

Self-identification is a concept represented in the traditional sense by a system of personal characteristics. They distinguish a particular person from others. As for social identity, it is primarily considered as the result of a person’s awareness of his belonging to a certain social group.

In the process of such consciousness, people can acquire characteristics characteristic only of this group. At an empirical and practical level, it is often difficult to distinguish between personal and social identities. Scientists are forced to think about what they are dealing with.

Types of social identity

The concept of “identity” is quite widely used in modern humanities and social sciences. It should be understood that this quality is not initially characteristic of the individual. Identity is a person’s relationship to himself within the world. It is formed and develops over time under conditions of interaction.

Scientists separately consider ethnic, professional, political, regional, age and gender identity. Their types differ, since the role of each of them in the personality structure is different. It completely depends on temporary and situational factors, such as place of residence, occupation, age, education, worldview, etc.

Ethnic identity is activated or weakened in the process of changing a person's attitude towards the national community to which he belongs. Most often, it is not formed by “attributing” any national attribute to others. As a rule, its manifestation occurs in the process of awareness and individual self-determination.

For example, if a person's surname has obvious ethnic characteristics, this does not mean that an identity exists. It is not always sufficient to identify a person as a member of the relevant nationality. However, it can be found even in a society characterized by obvious ethnic contradictions.

Gender identity is formed in early childhood during the process of human biological development. Apparently, this is determined not only by biological, but also by social factors. Thus, non-traditional sexual orientation (sexual identity) is a very difficult phenomenon to understand. This is due to the fact that in modern society there is an active struggle to determine the norms and conditions of such identity.

This problem cannot be solved separately within the framework of psychology, since it requires a systemic analysis. To do this, it is necessary to take into account the opinions of various specialists, including cultural scientists, biologists, psychiatrists and lawyers. The individual and the group must find a compromise, since an unconventional social identity can cause discomfort for many members of society.

Loss of identity

“I’ve lost myself”, “I don’t know who I am”, “I’m confused in myself”, “I don’t know where I’m going, what I want” - these are the thoughts that come to a person who has lost his identity. A person loses faith in himself, understanding of his place in the world, the integrity of his Self. An exaggerated example of loss of identity is mentally ill people who consider themselves Napoleons, Jesus, etc. This example belongs to the pathological extreme; psychiatry deals with them. We'll talk about what psychologists work with.

Causes

Causes of loss of identity (personal crisis):

• drastic changes in society (for example, many people faced this problem when the USSR collapsed);
• serious and unfavorable changes in the life of the person himself (dismissal, bankruptcy, divorce, someone’s death);
• age crisis, for example, midlife crisis.

In general, the cause of loss of personal identity is stress. Moreover, this can be both an unpleasant experience and a very pleasant one. For example, a wedding, a long-awaited move to another country, or the birth of a child can also cause a loss of identity. This occurs due to any strong psychological shock.

Symptoms and signs

Symptoms of loss of identity:

• frequent doubts such as “Why don’t I leave this job?”, “What am I doing here?”, “Why am I living with this person?”;
• constant reflection on the meaning of life and purpose;
• feeling of uncertainty;
• frustration;
• chronic anxiety;
• inability to form a system of values ​​and stable beliefs;
• doubts about the correctness of your actions;
• fear of the future;
• indecisiveness in actions.

For some people, the crisis is visible to the naked eye. They spend their time aimlessly, wander, they do not have a job or they change it often, or they are stuck in one position (usually a low one). Some people can't even get an education. Some people end up in bad company, some end up in prison. But most people just exist. They are unhappy, they do not understand what they want and what they can, where they need to move. In general, a person in such a state does not know who he is, and therefore cannot be himself and suffers greatly from this.

Danger of condition

How dangerous is this condition:

• exhaustion,
• maladjustment,
• desocialization,
• insulation,
• depression,
• neuroses,
• suicide,
• dependencies.

Some people try to console themselves with alcohol, drugs, or casual sex. Someone begins to grab onto everything in a row (any type of activity), but this only increases the feeling of emptiness and frustration. Others simply become depressed and lock themselves at home, waiting for death.

What to do

Remember where you last saw yourself. Try to remember a time when you felt good. What kind of person were you at that moment, where were you, who was nearby. Start with an analysis of childhood and gradually move towards the present. Remember what you could do, what you dreamed of, what you wanted. Why did they refuse this? Maybe it's time to return to this again? Think about what used to bring you joy, what was the meaning of life, an incentive. If you can't bring back exactly this, then think about something you can replace that is similar to this.

Thus, you need to find the reason (what brought you down) and work with this area. It is necessary to go through all stages of development again, starting from childhood. It's better to consult a specialist. In some cases, just one consultation is enough.