Interpersonal communication is... Concept, forms, principles, features

Group, mass and interpersonal communications

Before moving on to the terminology of the basic concept, we suggest that you familiarize yourself with other types of communication:

• Mass communication is the process of disseminating information and influencing others through radio, television, print, cinema, etc., as a result of which messages of this kind reach a large mass of people.
• Interpersonal communication is the process of interaction and transfer of information from one person to another, involving information exchange. The main goal of this type is mutual understanding between two or a group of people.
• Group communication involves communication within a group of people, the number of which, as a rule, reaches up to twenty people. It is worth noting that interpersonal and group communications have some similarities, since in both options people interact through speech. Returning to group communications, it should be added that the totality of communication interactions allows both to strengthen the group and increase conflict among participants. If the concept of interpersonal communication presupposes information exchange, the main goal of which is mutual understanding between two people, then the goal of group communication is the implementation of interdependent actions and the solution of joint problems.

Communication strategy, communication tactics, communication skills

A communicative strategy is a part of communicative behavior or communicative interaction in which a series of different verbal and nonverbal means are used to achieve a specific communicative goal, as E.V. Klyuev writes, “the strategic result towards which the communicative act is aimed.” Strategy is a general framework, outline of behavior, which may include deviations from the goal in individual steps. Sellers, in particular, are taught strategies for selling goods through communication with the buyer. Sometimes a seller may speak badly about a particular product. But at the same time, he is implicitly advertising another available product! The seller (especially the street distributor) can use non-verbal techniques (offering to look at a brochure with illustrations together - penetrating into the personal space of a potential buyer).

We use a specific greeting strategy every day for different people and for different purposes of communicating with these people. Many strategies are ritualized, turned into speech conventions and lose their “rhythm” and information content. Violation of conventions, on the contrary, can be considered as a 'message'. If you are often late, and justify your lateness, for example, with poor transport, then they stop believing you. When this actually happens, they don’t believe your truth. In this case, you can even come up with a paradoxical principle: lie so that they believe

Communicative intent (task)

– a tactical move, which is a practical means of moving towards the corresponding communicative goal. Remember the previous example of 'temporary honesty' with the buyer. The same “temporary frankness” is contained in the rhetorical figures of politicians who admit: “We are not angels, we are simple people,” although the communicative goal is to convince the voter of the almost “divine” exclusivity of the potential chosen one. For this, non-verbal elements of communication can also be used (simple clothes, the president in a home environment and a sweater, and other image-making techniques).

The intention and the goal are different here, but ultimately, within the framework of the strategy, the intention contributes to the implementation of the overall goal: - be able to effectively formulate a communication strategy; - be able to effectively use a variety of tactical communication techniques; - be able to effectively present yourself (or your company) as a participant in the communication process. Efficiency here means the correlation of verbal and nonverbal techniques with the goals and objectives of communication, communicative intention and perspective, the systemic cohesion of the elements of a communicative strategy, the practical feasibility of individual tactical moves.

A little more detail

Interpersonal communication consists of direct contact with people one-on-one, that is, face to face. Interpersonal communication is characterized by the psychological closeness of the interlocutors, the presence of empathy, understanding and sympathy. This type of communication contains three interconnected aspects:

• communicative - consists of the exchange of informational oral messages between interlocutors, the transmission and reception of feelings and opinions;
• perceptual - affects the process of understanding and perception of the interacting parties, which contributes to the formation of certain interpersonal relationships;
• interactive - consists of the exchange of actions between communication partners (for example, request - agreement or refusal).

Interpersonal communication is one of the most important categories of psychological science, since communication plays a major role in the interaction of people. In this type of communication, there are two types of communication: nonverbal and verbal. The first option dates back to ancient times, and the verbal one appeared much later, but is a universal way of communication today. In other words, interpersonal communication is communication between at least two persons, which is aimed at mutual establishment, cognition and development of relationships, involving mutual influence on the behavior, mood, views, and state of the participants in this process. It is also the most free from formal frameworks that regulate the style and form of the message, which makes it more intelligible and accessible. In addition, in the process of personal communication, the effect of perception can be enhanced due to the intonation of the interlocutor, his gestures, timbre of voice, facial expressions, charm, focused exclusively on a specific person. It is worth noting that in interpersonal communication there are great unlimited opportunities for applying the feedback effect.

Features of verbal and nonverbal communication in interpersonal communication

Interpersonal speech communication always represents social interaction, dialogue. By participating in verbal communication, a person expresses judgments and perceives the words expressed by other people. Information expressed in language by one person is appropriated by others, and thus understanding occurs in dialogue. In dialogue, as a communicative process, people interact by expressing semantic positions in words. In dialogue, thought is assessed and mastered in accordance with business, political, ethical, aesthetic and other criteria. Thus, dialogue is an indispensable component of linguistic communication. In interpersonal communication, posture, gestures, facial expressions, facial expressions, gaze, etc. are used as nonverbal communication means. Nonverbal means of communication, despite the richness of the verbal language of communication, are used very widely in interpersonal communication. Unlike words (sentences), nonverbal means are perceived directly by a person and act strongly, conveying the subtlest nuances of attitude.

Nonverbal means of communication (as well as verbal ones) perform basic communication functions (informational, pragmatic and expressive).

Nonverbal signs (for example, gestures, facial expressions) are most often unmotivated indexed signs and reveal feelings, emotions, and evaluative attitudes. The pragmatic function includes establishing contact, feedback, social orientation, incentive and regulatory motives. Expressive functions include adaptive, emotional (evoking emotions) and emphatic (emotional highlighting of a certain fragment).

Nonverbal communication always occurs in person. These means, as is known, can accompany speech, or can be used separately from verbal means. Nonverbal signs can be divided into three main groups: body language, paralinguistic means, clothing and jewelry. Body language can reveal a lot about the feelings and intentions of communicators. The biological roots of body language lie in various animal postures studied by ethology (postures of intimidation, reconciliation, loving intentions, etc.).

Meanings of posture, position of limbs, fingers, etc. are not always precisely defined initially; they depend on the context. Moreover, the human body is flexible enough to assume almost any position. Verbal communication is the most studied type of human communication. In addition, this is the most universal way of transmitting thoughts. A message created using any other sign system can be 'translated' into verbal human language. For example, a red light signal is translated as 'the passage is closed', 'stop'; a raised finger covered by the palm of the other hand, as in 'asking for an extra minute of break' in sports, etc. The speech side of communication has a complex multi-tiered structure (from the differential feature of phoneme to text and intertext) and appears in various stylistic varieties (various styles and genres, colloquial and literary language, dialects and sociolects, etc.).

All speech characteristics and other components of a communicative act contribute to its (successful or unsuccessful) implementation. When speaking with others, we select from a vast inventory (in modern linguistics they sometimes say: fields) of possible means of speech and non-speech communication those means that seem to us most suitable for expressing our thoughts in a given situation. speech is part of communicative culture and culture in general.

Barriers in interpersonal communication can be classified according to the nature of the existing interference:

1. Technical interference The source of such interference is the communication channel itself (fax, telephone) when obstacles to the passing signal appear in the communication channel. Interference can completely block the communication channel or partially, distorting information or truncating it.

2. Psychological interference is associated with the relationship between the communicator and the recipient, their attitudes towards the channel of information, methods, content and form of the message

3. Psychophysiological INTERFERENCE arises due to sensory abilities, peculiarities of human perception, and the ability of the human brain to remember and process information.

4. Social interference is expressed in the communicants’ belonging to different social groups; they are determined by social norms, prohibitions, and restrictions in obtaining information. 5. Cultural and national reasons. Features in interethnic communications are determined by differences in traditions, norms, values, assessment of various forms of communications, and reactions to the information received.

Forms

Depending on the transmission channel, interpersonal communication is usually divided into oral and written. The written form of interpersonal communications in communication includes information in the form of reports, reports, orders, etc., where the coding symbol is the written word. The following advantages of this form of communication are highlighted:

• possibility of storing information;
• the greatest precision and care when creating a message.

The disadvantages include:

• it takes more time to formulate a message, in contrast to the oral form of communication;
• there is no possibility of establishing feedback and exchanging information.

When choosing a form of communication, you should adhere to the following rules:

• the oral form is preferable in cases where it is necessary to convey a personal, new, ambiguous, emotional message to the interlocutor (telephone conversation, personal meeting);
• the written form is most effective when conveying routine, impersonal, simple and long messages (e-mail, official letter).

For effective interpersonal communication, it is recommended to combine both forms. For example, using a telephone call you can notify about an important meeting and receive an immediate response from the interlocutor, and a reminder message in writing with a specified time and date ensures that the recipient will not forget about it. Today there are a lot of different tablets, mobile phones, faxes, computer networks that blur the boundaries between written and oral forms of communication and make each of them more effective.

The oral form consists of a dialogue, conversation, discussion, telephone conversation, where the coding symbol is a word. In addition to oral speech, nonverbal communication plays a huge role in interpersonal communication: intonation, smile, facial expressions, gestures, facial expressions, etc. Such information can convey feelings and thoughts in a more effective way than any carefully chosen words. Oral communications also have disadvantages. Typically, these include the following:

• difficulty in storing information due to the fact that this type does not leave notes, records and documents;
• the emergence of some barriers to interpersonal communications, which can subsequently lead to errors and misunderstandings; barriers usually include: inability to listen, stereotypes, different perceptions, etc.

Let's look at them in more detail.

Removing barriers

Improving organizational communications and eliminating barriers in organizations is facilitated by:

1. Streamlining the communication process.
2. Effective use of graphics.
3. The most effective method of improving communications is filtering information.
4. Barriers caused by the perception of information. To eliminate this barrier, the position (installation) of the recipient should be clarified and adjusted to the transfer of information.
5. To eliminate semantic barriers caused by different understandings of the symbols exchanged between the sender and recipient of information, employees need to avoid narrow professional jargon and acquire a culture of speech.
6. To eliminate nonverbal barriers that arise as a result of incorrect interpretation by participants in the communicative process of eye expression, facial expressions, gestures, intonation, voice modulation, etc., it is necessary to be able to “read” people by their nonverbal signals.
7. Learn to listen and convey information from participants in the communication process.
8. It is necessary to provide sufficient information.
9. Wrong psychological attitude. To overcome a stereotype of thinking, when forming a message, you need to remember, firstly, that the message must be thought through and have confidence that it is not distorted by a stereotype, and secondly, determine what stereotype the recipient has and how to construct the message so that the recipient was not influenced by the stereotype.
10. Improving feedback.
11. Increasing the efficiency of information accounting.

Within each management system, it is necessary to select methods for improving communications that will correspond to the culture of the organization, its technical potential, and the degree of importance of tasks at a certain stage of development. Constant modification of communication links is necessary to strengthen mutual understanding between employees of the organization and form its positive image in the environment.

Perception

Perception is the process of receiving and transforming information through which an individual gains an understanding of reality. It is worth noting that it is subjective in nature, since each person tends to interpret a particular situation differently. With the help of sound, visual and tactile channels of receiving information, a person perceives only what matters to him. Thus, it depends on perception how accurately a person receives the information that the sender wanted to convey to him.

Inability to listen

Lack of concentration on the interlocutor and inability to listen is a serious barrier to interpersonal social communication. To correctly receive an oral message, you need to hear it. During the conversation, it is important to accept information from the interlocutor, interpret it correctly and give an adequate answer if the situation requires it.

Experts provide several tips for increasing the effectiveness of interpersonal communication during the listening process:

• It is not recommended to speak and interrupt your interlocutor;
• during a conversation, ask questions, thereby maintaining your partner’s interest;
• create a favorable atmosphere for your interlocutor, find interesting and common topics;
• During a conversation, do not criticize or argue with the speaker, try to evaluate the essence, not the words.
• Let your interlocutor know that you are listening.

Bad feedback

Successful activity through interpersonal communications is determined by the effectiveness or, conversely, ineffectiveness of feedback. In any conversation there is always a two-way direction implied. Simply put, during a conversation, feedback from the interlocutor is necessary to improve the effectiveness of the exchange of oral messages. Do not forget about its importance, as it allows you to assess how correctly the interlocutor understood the information. An obstacle to effective communications can be not only poorly established feedback, but also its complete absence.

Principles in Interpersonal Communication

Probably, many have noticed that some have difficulty communicating with people, while others, on the contrary, very quickly find a common language. The secret is simple - for a successful and productive information exchange, everyone should know the processes and principles of interpersonal communication. Every day we encounter a large flow of people and, at times, social contacts are inevitable. Without noticing it, when communicating a person has a certain impact on his interlocutors, and thereby develops his own individual line of behavior. We invite you to familiarize yourself with the simple rules of interpersonal communications:

• When communicating with your interlocutor, it is important to remain calm, because excessive emotionality can interfere with the perception of information. After your opponent has finished his speech, be sure to show that you understood and heard him.
• Don’t forget about your appearance, as this allows you to create the first impression of your interlocutor. During a conversation, it is common for a person to involuntarily observe his opponent and form his own opinion about him, not only based on his words, but also on his appearance. Therefore, it is so important to monitor your gait, manner of speaking, hairstyle, and clothing.
• As previously mentioned, interpersonal communication is a process of interaction between two or more people, therefore for successful communication you need to listen carefully to your interlocutor. During the conversation, try to concentrate solely on the participant in the dialogue and not be distracted by composing the questions you plan to ask.
• Don't forget the fact that it only takes about five minutes of conversation to form a first impression of your interlocutor. In the first minutes of communication, all senses are aimed at getting to know the opponent as best as possible. Typically, after just four minutes, a person is ready to make a choice about whether to continue the conversation. Therefore, if you want to gain trust and succeed in communicating with your interlocutor, you need to monitor your facial expressions, gestures and tone from the very beginning.
• Experts advise touching on neutral topics at the beginning of the conversation. In the communication process, you should show kindness, politeness and tact. One of the proven and simple ways to win over your opponent is an open and sincere smile.
• During a conversation, it is important to monitor your facial expressions and facial expressions. Vivid expression of emotions (both negative and positive) can become an obstacle to constructive conversation.

Models of communicative personality

By a communicative personality we will, following V. Kashkin, understand the totality of individual communicative strategies and tactics, cognitive, semiotic, motivational preferences formed in communication processes.

8 pages, 3931 words

Communicative personality

... of other names naming the subject of conversation, the anthroponym can designate the communicants themselves. The communicative function of an anthroponym is self-awareness and self-determination of a communicative personality as a participant in communication and social life (80% of which is ...

An individual and a communicative personality are not the same thing. Different personalities can coexist within one individual. The concept of multiple personality is now also widespread in psychology. The extreme manifestation of this is clinical dual personality (mental disorder), but a healthy person also manifests himself in various areas, in various linguistic markets.

The defining parameters for a communicative personality are three: motivational, cognitive and functional.

.

Motivational parameter

determined
by communication needs
and occupies a central place in the structure of the communicative personality. If there is no need, then there is no communication, or there is pseudo-communication, most likely determined by the psychological need for the communication process as such, and not for the transmission of a message (loneliness, gaming socialization, etc.).

Based on the communicative need, a communicative attitude

, which is pursued by the communicative personality.

Cognitive parameter

includes many characteristics that form the individual’s inner world in the process of accumulating cognitive experience: knowledge of communicative codes, the ability to carry out introspection and self-reflection, that is, introspection and self-awareness, metacommunication skills, the ability to adequately assess the cognitive and communicative horizon of the communicant partner, myths and prejudices, stereotypes and beliefs. The success of communication and the impact on the interlocutor largely depend on the compatibility of the cognitive characteristics of the communicants.

Functional Parameter

includes three characteristics that determine the communicative competence of an individual: practical knowledge of verbal and non-verbal means to carry out communicative functions; the ability to vary communicative means in the communication process in connection with changes in the situation and communication conditions; constructing discourse in accordance with code norms and etiquette rules.

Now about models or types of communicative personality. There are four of them.

1. Dominant communicator
   : strives to take the initiative, does not like to be interrupted, is harsh, mocking, speaks louder than others. To “fight” such a communicant, it is useless to use his own techniques; it is better to adopt the strategy of “speech exhaustion” (enter speech after a pause, quickly formulate your position, questions, requests, use “cumulative tactics”).
2. Mobile communicator
   : easily enters into a conversation, moves from topic to topic, speaks a lot, interestingly and with pleasure, does not get lost in an unfamiliar communication situation. You should sometimes - in your own interests - return it to the desired topic.
3. Rigid communicator
   : experiences difficulties in the contact-building phase of communication, then is clear and logical. It is recommended to use the strategy of 'warming up' the partner (introductory part about the weather, etc.).
4. Introverted communicator
   : does not strive to take the initiative, gives it away, is shy and modest, constrained in an unexpected communication situation. When communicating with him, you should speak calmly and not interrupt.

Some experts distinguish types of linguistic personality depending on the areas of literature.

For all types of oral literature, the creator of speech coincides with the linguistic personality - the individual speaker. In written literature with the handwritten technique, the creator of the speech also coincides with the individual (except for documents).

4 pages, 1807 words

Communication success and communication skills

... and non-verbal techniques with the goals and objectives of communication, the communicative perspective, the systemic cohesion of the elements of the communicative strategy, the practical feasibility of individual tactical moves. Methods... intention contributes to the achievement of a common goal. — Communicative experience is directly related to the formation of a communicative personality. The meanings of words are stored as a memory of...

In documents, the creator of the speech can be collegial; one document can be created by different legal entities. Such a linguistic personality can be called collegial

. In printed literature, the work of the author and the publisher (creation and replication of the text) is divided.

Here we have a cooperative speaker

. Texts of mass communication combine the features of collegial and cooperative speech activity (news agency + editorial staff + publishing house), therefore, we have a collegial-cooperative linguistic personality. Computer science as a type of literature contains three types of activities (summary and annotation as a complex work on the analysis of the primary text and the synthesis of the secondary + information retrieval + automated control), therefore it is a collective speech activity.

A communicative personality is the most important component of personality in general, because communication occupies 80% of all human existence (listening - 45%, speaking - 30%, reading - 16%, writing - 9%).

Peculiarities

We propose to consider the distinctive features of interpersonal communication:

• Irreversibility lies in the inability to return spoken words.
• Relationships are a determining factor in the stages of the process of interpersonal communication, which develop as a result of creative and business contacts, as well as the ability of people to emotionally perceive each other - empathy.
• Inevitability and inevitability is explained by the fact that man is a social phenomenon, the existence of which is impossible without communication.

Thus, speaking about the features of interpersonal communication, the following aspects should be highlighted:

• Activity of communication partners. By sending information messages, one participant assumes the activity of the other, who, in turn, also needs to focus on the goals, motives and attitudes of his interlocutor.
• The active exchange of thoughts between conversation participants helps to establish interpersonal communication.
• In the process of verbal interaction, mutual understanding occurs or misunderstanding occurs, which is obtained in the presence of feedback.
• The essence of interpersonal communication is that information is not only accepted by the interlocutor, but analyzed and comprehended.
• The information that was received by the interlocutor and returned back organizes the participants in interpersonal relationships into a common information field.

Types, levels, functions of interpersonal communication

One of the possible classifications is based on the dependence of interpersonal communication on various motives and goals

its participants.
If the purpose of communication is psychological contact, psychological relationships between interlocutors, then we talk about the motives of communication that lie within the boundaries of communication itself,
or about
modal communication:
people enjoy the process of communication or are engaged in “showing things off.”
If the goals of communication are different - transmitting information, encouraging a communication partner to take some action, the desire to change his views, the desire to provide emotional support - in these cases we talk about the motives of communication that lie beyond its boundaries.
This is typical for so-called
dictal
communication, that is, communication associated with one or another objective interaction (Leontyev, 1997).

The nature of the goal and, as a consequence, the psychological distance that arises between partners make it possible to distinguish different levels of communication.

Among them:

• ritual,
  or
  social-role
  level; the purpose of communication at this level is to fulfill the role expected of a person and demonstrate knowledge of the norms of the social environment. Communication in this case is, as a rule, anonymous in nature, regardless of whether it occurs between strangers, acquaintances or close people;
• business,
  or
  manipulative,
  level; the purpose of such communication is to organize joint activities and search for means to increase the effectiveness of cooperation. In this case, partners are assessed not as unique, inimitable individuals, but from the point of view of how well they can complete the tasks assigned to them, that is, their functional qualities are assessed. Accordingly, communication is psychologically detached - I-You contact dominates;
• intimate-personal
  level; the goal is to satisfy the need for understanding, sympathy, empathy. Communication at this level is characterized by psychological closeness, empathy, trust - I-You contact dominates (Golovakha, Panina, 1989; Petrovskaya, 1989).

In accordance with the goals, the functions of interpersonal communication can be distinguished.

Here is one of the most complete classifications of communication functions, identified according to the criterion of purpose:

1) contact function –

establishing contact as a state of mutual readiness to receive and transmit messages and maintain relationships in the form of constant mutual orientation;

2) information function –

exchange of messages, opinions, plans, decisions;

3) incentive function -

stimulating the partner’s activity to direct him to perform certain actions;

4) coordination function –

mutual orientation and coordination of actions when organizing joint activities;

5) function of understanding –

adequate perception and understanding of the meaning of the message and mutual understanding of intentions, attitudes, experiences, states;

6) emotive function –

arousing the necessary emotional experiences in a partner, as well as changing one’s experiences and states with his help;

7) relationship function

– awareness and fixation of one’s place in the system of role, status, business, interpersonal and other connections of the community in which the individual operates;

influence function

– change in the state, behavior, personal and semantic formations of the partner.

Structural analysis of communication

The widely accepted analytical model, according to which the structure of any act of communication includes perceptual, communicative and interactive aspects, is essentially aimed at specifying the subject area of ​​interpersonal communication in accordance with the functional diversity of processes occurring within its framework.

Perceptual side –

the process of partners’ perception of each other, their mutual knowledge as the basis for mutual understanding. Perceptual skills are manifested in the ability to determine the context of a meeting; understand your partner’s mood by his verbal and non-verbal behavior; take into account the “psychological effects” of perception when analyzing a communicative situation.

Communication side

– the use of means of communication, divided into verbal and non-verbal. A good communicator is a person who has a rich repertoire of communication techniques used at different levels of communication.

Interactive side

– interaction between people, presupposing a certain form of organization of joint activity (consent, adaptation or competition, conflict). Among the possible positions that partners take when organizing and carrying out communication, one can approach the partner “from above”, “as equals”, “from below” or a distant position. None of them are clearly good or bad. The productivity of an extension can only be judged in the context of a specific situation. Thus, “an extension from below,” which is appropriate in some cases (for example, if it is necessary to apologize to a partner), can transform into insincere obsequiousness; a detached position, non-interference, can, in its extreme expression, become alienation. A person’s ability to use the entire palette of possible positions in communication is one of the possible indicators of a person’s psychological maturity.

The quantitative characteristic of interpersonal communication was developed in the concept of “social circle”.

The latter denotes the number of people with whom communication is carried out at one level or another. Most of us know well from personal experience that you can deeply know and understand, at best, two or three people, and more or less successfully navigate the behavior of about ten; In relation to others, standards and stereotypes come into play. Domestic psychologist Y. Kolominsky proposed, depending on the degree of psychological closeness and significance, to distinguish two circles of desired communication: the first (closest) includes from one to four people, the second - from six to eight. The conducted studies made it possible to compare how much the circle of people we like coincides with the circle of those with whom we communicate most of the time. It turned out that in adults it reaches 40%, and in children - only 19-24% (Kolominsky, 1986).

APPROPRIATE QUOTE

Writer T. Wilder introduced the expression “constellation of significant”:

Each person should have 2×9 people spiritually close to him (men and women), among whom are older than him in age, his peers and younger in age. Rarely, and maybe never, are these 18 vacant positions filled at the same time: there are unfilled positions - some for many years, some have only an older and younger friend all their lives, and sometimes - none. The more vacant places in this constellation, the stronger a person experiences a feeling of loneliness, the more he suffers from misunderstanding.

(Quoted from: Shvalb Yu. M., Dancheva O. V.

Loneliness: socio-psychological problems. – Kyiv, 1991.)

Structural analysis of the process of interpersonal communication can be found in the works of not only theoretical psychologists, but also practicing psychologists. Thus, a specialist in the field of family psychotherapy, Virginia Satir, identifies four important components of interaction between family members (Satir, 1992).

• Firstly, these are a person’s feelings and thoughts towards himself, or self-esteem.
• Secondly, these are the ways in which people convey various information to each other, share experiences and thoughts, or methods of communication.
• Thirdly, it is the set of rules that people adhere to and follow in their lives, or the family system.
• Fourthly, these are the methods by which the family carries out its connections with other social institutions, or social connections.

With all the variety of problems, a family experiencing pain (in V. Satir’s terms) is always characterized by:

• low self-esteem;
• undirected, confused, unclear, largely unrealistic and dishonest communications;
• rigid, inert, stereotypical, inhumane, not aimed at helping others and excessively limiting life rules of behavior;
• social connections that either provide peace in the family or are filled with fear and threat.

Mature families are characterized by high self-esteem, spontaneous, direct, clear and honest communications; The rules in these families are flexible, humane, and acceptance-oriented. Members of these families are capable of change; social connections are open and full of positive attitudes and hopes.

Thus, taking into account both everyday ideas and the judgments of experts in the subject area

interpersonal communication can include:

• mental processes and states that ensure the transaction (interpersonal perception, needs and motivations, emotions and feelings, self-esteem, psychological defenses, etc.);
• communicative practices that mediate interaction between people (speech, nonverbal messages);
• norms and rules that make joint activity possible, often unconscious, developed within a certain sociocultural group.

Of course, the real process of communication is a functional unity of all the listed elements. At the same time, for analytical purposes, identifying relatively independent blocks turns out to be advisable.

Analytical models

Psychological, information-communicative and social-normative processes that make up the subject area of ​​the theory of interpersonal communication are studied in various disciplines of the humanities. Among them are personality psychology and social psychology, linguistics (especially psycho- and sociolinguistics), sociology (primarily such areas of microsociology as symbolic interactionism and dramaturgical sociology). Thus, the theory of interpersonal communication fundamentally turns out to be a sphere of interdisciplinary knowledge. Moreover, its development is stimulated by interdisciplinary connections.

The scientific study of the phenomenon of communication took place in several stages. The earliest work dealt with communication processes. The use of the (radio) telephone metaphor suggested terms to describe the processes of processing and transferring information between communication partners. Advances in cybernetics have inspired widespread use of the concepts of feedback and correction to explain the processes by which partners coordinate their efforts and achieve mutual understanding.

Following and almost in parallel with the research on the communication process, research was conducted on interpersonal perception. A significant number of perceptual patterns were identified, which could be assigned the meaning of structural elements in communication. It became possible to predict behavior.

As social perception was discovered to depend on higher order variables, research on interpersonal interaction developed. The emphasis shifted from the analysis of information flows to the analysis of the processes and results that communication provided or sought to achieve. The most important concepts were “impact”, “distance”, “personal territory”, “scenarios”, etc.

Further, the study of communication continued as a study of interpersonal relationships: the study of long-term phenomena (acquaintance, the formation of relationships, overcoming difficulties, breakup, etc.), proximity to real life tasks (family, work relationships), intimate accents (love, friendship, intimacy). Problems such as discussing the content of communication and fixing stable structural characteristics (for example, enmity, sympathy, mutual suspicion, dominance, struggle, manipulation) have acquired significance.

Interpersonal communication

mutual exchange of subjective experience of people who are in spatial proximity, having the opportunity to see, hear, touch each other, and easily provide feedback.

Communication models

diagrams representing the communication process.

It should be emphasized that the analysis of interpersonal communication can allow for both objective

methods (the position of an external observer) and
subjective
methods (the position of a subject involved in communication). In the first case, the research is aimed at obtaining a schematic cross-section of the communication process (static aspect), in the second, the goal is to study live communication (dynamic aspect).

Interpersonal communication –

mutual exchange of subjective experience of people who are in spatial proximity, having the opportunity to see, hear, touch each other, and easily provide feedback.

Well-known models of interpersonal communication reflect this difference in research interests.

Linear model

(Figure 1.1) depicts communication as an activity in which the sender encodes ideas and feelings into a particular kind of message and then sends it to the recipient using some channel (speech, written message, etc.). If the message reaches the recipient, overcoming various kinds of “noise” or interference, then the communication is considered successful. This model draws attention to a number of important issues in the communication process—in particular, how different channels can influence the way a recipient responds to a message. For example, would the phrase “I love you” be received the same way if said in person? By phone? At the disco while dancing? Send by telegraph? The linear model also shows how “noise”, interference of various kinds, can distort the message.

Rice. 1.1. Linear communication model

There are two types of “noise” that block communication: physical

and
psychological.
In the first case, we are talking about physical interference - for example, a noisy room filled with cigarette smoke, in which it is difficult to concentrate and fatigue quickly sets in. Examples of the second type of interference could be strong emotional arousal or extremely low self-esteem, which does not allow a person to be sufficiently accurate when perceiving the message sent to him.

The linear model allows us to consider communication as a unidirectional process - from sender to recipient. However, this method of transmitting messages is more typical for written communication, the media, or for communication in which the partner is perceived as an object of influence. Thus, we can conclude that the linear model only partially covers the features of the interpersonal communication process.

Interactive model

(Fig. 1.2) introduces feedback as a mandatory element of the communication process, clearly demonstrating the circular nature of communication: the sender and recipient of the message successively change places.

Rice. 1.2. Interactive model

If the first two models depict communication as a series of discrete acts with a beginning and an end, in which the sender essentially determines the actions of the recipient, then the transactional model

(Fig. 1.3) represents communication as a process of simultaneous sending and receiving of messages by communicators. At any given moment, we are able to receive and decode another person's messages, respond to his behavior, and at the same time the other person receives and responds to our messages. This model allows us to see that a discrete act of communication is difficult to separate from the events that precede and follow it. Thus, communication is a process in which people form relationships by interacting with each other.

Rice. 1.3. Transactional communication model

Theoretical directions

All well-known theoretical directions within the framework of which socio-psychological research is carried out - behaviorism, cognitivism, psychoanalysis, role theory, humanistic psychology - have contributed to the development of problems of interpersonal communication.

As is known, each of these approaches identifies a key determinant that determines social behavior. For behaviorism these are external stimuli, for cognitive theories these are internal psychological motivations, for the psychoanalytic direction - unconscious drives repressed into the subconscious, for the role paradigm - the structure of role prescriptions. Let us consider the main ideas and concepts developed within the framework of these areas and which largely determined the theoretical understanding of interpersonal communication.

Behaviorism

Among the social-psychological theories that follow the behaviorist paradigm and influenced the development of the subject area of ​​interpersonal communication are the theories of social learning

and
social exchange.
The key idea here is that a person's interpersonal skills are acquired through life experiences and can be maintained or changed through some form of reinforcement or observation.

The very concept of “learning” means a systematic modification of an individual’s behavior when the same situation is repeated. The following types of learning are distinguished:

• reactive or respondent.
  Development of a conditioned reflex based on associative connections: just as a dog can develop a reflexive salivation in response to light or a bell (even in the absence of food), a person can develop, for example, a reaction of disgust to the words “Nazi” or “communist”, and also on people classified in this group);
• instrumental
  or
  operant.
  Reinforcing desired behavior through encouragement or reinforcement. People learn to act in a certain way because something pleasant follows, or in order to avoid something unpleasant;
• learning from observation.
  People often learn attitudes and actions simply by observing a model.
  In this case, imitation, identification
  and
  role-playing training are distinguished.
  Imitation can occur without external reinforcement. In identification, one model is preferred over another. The object of imitation and identification can be parents, brothers and sisters, other relatives, friends, neighbors, teachers, heroes of works of art, etc. Role-playing training means that special situations are simulated in order to practice certain behavioral skills. Most speech and communication courses use both live and symbolic models of teaching communication skills. For example, students watch a friend give a speech and then discuss his speech, watch videos of speakers, and evaluate them in class.

Contributions of exchange theory

The study of interpersonal interaction can be considered an analysis of the relationship between people as an exchange of resources of a certain kind. According to the main provisions of this theory:

1) human behavior is motivated primarily by the desire for pleasure and avoidance of suffering;

2) the actions of other people are the main source of pleasure and pain;

3) the actions of others can be used to increase the pleasure received from them;

4) people strive to get maximum pleasure at minimum cost.

Exchange presupposes the presence of resources that can be transferred in the process of interpersonal interaction. It is customary to consider love, status, services, goods, information and money as resources. Obviously, different types of resources imply different rules of exchange. People prefer some resources over others. These preferred, desired resources are perceived as rewards. Rewards act as positive reinforcement and increase the likelihood of behavior that is associated with that reinforcement. Of course, not all rewards are of equal value. The more accumulated a resource a person has, the less valuable it becomes to him.

Losing or not obtaining a desired resource is defined as a cost. There are three types of costs: 1) invested costs - time and effort spent by a person to acquire a resource (for example, a person may invest a significant amount of money and time to obtain an education diploma or a resource such as information); 2) direct costs - those resources that are given under the terms of exchange (money in exchange for something else); types of such costs can be boredom, disapproval of others, misunderstanding, lost time; 3) random (anticipatory) costs - investment of resources in anticipation of possible future rewards.

Some people strive for a profitable exchange with maximum benefit for themselves and minimum costs, regardless of the interests of others. Others are characterized by a desire for a fair exchange, when an attempt is made to mutually take into account the interests of the parties.

Cognitivism

Various theories of the cognitivist direction also contain many ideas that explain various processes of interpersonal communication.

The main idea of ​​the cognitive approach is that a person’s behavior depends on how he perceives the social environment. No matter how chaotic or contradictory a situation is, people bring some order to it. Cognitive schemas that organize the perception and interpretation of the social world influence human behavior. Thus, the focus of cognitive scientists is on the processes of perception, interpretation, memorization, image formation and their subsequent impact on human behavior. In this case, behavior is understood as directed activity; the source of activity and direction of behavior is motivation.

The theory of structural balance, the theory of communicative acts, the theory of congruence, and the theory of causal attribution made a great contribution to understanding the characteristics of interpersonal communication

The main idea, which is developed in the first three theories (F. Heider, T. Newcome, C. Osgood, P. Tannenbaum, etc.), in the most general form can be formulated as follows: the cognitive structure of the perceiving subject will be balanced if it obeys ordinary everyday rule: “we love what our friends like”, “we do not like what our enemies like.” According to F. Heider, one of the authors of the theory of structural balance, these judgments express the ideas of naive psychology about a person’s desire for a balanced cognitive structure. Precisely because the analytical model of these theories includes three obligatory elements, namely, a cognizing subject, another subject to which the first relates in a certain way, and finally, an object about which both the perceiver and his partner have some kind of opinion - then research situations essentially turn out to be situations of interpersonal interaction. The researcher’s task is to determine which type of relationship between the three designated elements provides a stable, balanced structure, and which one causes a situation of discomfort. Thus, in accordance with T. Newcomb’s theory of communicative acts, the similarity of the relations of A and B to the object will generate attachment between them and, on the contrary, the divergence of these relations will generate hostility between them. To bring the system into a situation of balance, it is necessary to conduct negotiations, the purpose of which is to bring together the positions of A and B in relation to the subject of disagreement. Newcomb's model has found practical application in the study of mass communication processes, namely, in determining the conditions for the effectiveness of persuasive speech influence on the consumer of information.

An important contribution of cognitivism to the study of human social behavior is the study of such a phenomenon as causal attribution,

that is, how people interpret the reasons for the behavior of others in conditions of insufficient information about these reasons (E. Jones and K. Davis, J. Kelly, R. Nisbet, L. Ross, etc.). Although the process of attribution occurs when a person analyzes a wide variety of social phenomena, in the theory of interpersonal communication, special importance is attached to attribution regarding the behavior of the interaction partner.

The so-called “second cognitive revolution” had a serious impact on the development of the theory of interpersonal communication. It is associated with the formation of discursive psychology (R. Harré) and the theory of social constructivism (K. Gergen). The design of this direction was influenced by the ideas of L. S. Vygotsky, in particular, his psychological theory of socialization, which considers language as the main cultural mediator of thinking and activity, included in the system of social life of society.

The main field of research becomes language, discourse, that is, the study of oral and written language communication taking place in normal, natural conditions. The main object of the study, accordingly, is the participants in the conversation, the “community of interlocutors,” while it is argued that speech not only serves human activity, but constitutes both types of activity and interpersonal relationships.

In its main provisions, social constructivism and discursive psychology are closely intertwined with the ideas of the so-called role paradigm.

Role paradigm

The role paradigm has its roots in sociology. If for behaviorism and cognitivism the initial conditions of analysis are the mental properties and abilities of the individual, then the role paradigm focuses on the relationships between people, the definition of rules and roles and their connection with social behavior. The study of human behavior in a social environment has as its subject the semantic, symbolic aspect of communication, that is, the symbolic nature of human activity. The key determinant of behavior is the role that is prescribed to a person by social circumstances and his social position.

According to the theory of symbolic interactionism

(J. Mead), society should be understood not as an objective structure, but as a constantly occurring interaction between acting individuals who meet within various situations. The way people treat each other and react to others depends on how they interpret the social situation. The most important factor that sets the frame and structure of social interaction is the definition of the situation. When people come together for, say, a holiday dinner, they must develop an agreement about how it will happen. The end result is that everyone present understands the meaning of what is happening. If the event took place and mutual typological understanding was achieved, it means that the everyday versions of social structures contained in the minds of the participants coincided, thereby forming the basis for further joint activity. This shared understanding is essential to social life. This process becomes the main research problem of interactionists.

If J. Mead considered a person’s ability to role-play in his imagination, then the representative of the dramatic approach E.

Goffman proposes to consider not imaginary role-playing games, but real human behavior as acting. The starting principle of his analysis: a person’s actions, and his very personality, are determined by the situation, the social game that he plays together with other people. This principle is directed against personality psychology, according to which a person’s personal qualities determine the outcome of his communication with others. How we perceive ourselves, according to Goffman, is determined not by our character, internal motivational profile or other internal personal qualities, but by our actions and the reactions of the “other” to these actions.

Psychoanalysis

For representatives of the psychoanalytic school, the main determinant of human behavior is unconscious, repressed into the subconscious drives. The contribution of psychoanalysis to the development of the theory of interpersonal communication can be considered the study of relationships in the family as a key factor in personality formation, as well as the relationship between the therapist and the client (the problem of transference). Each person can imagine his early relationships as themes of his own interpersonal life, and all subsequent relationships as the development and repetition of these themes.

In the formulation of G. S. Sullivan (Sullivan, 1999), this idea sounds as follows: people are inseparable from their environment, personality is formed only within the framework of interpersonal communication, personality and character are not located within a person, but are manifested in relationships with other people, while with different people - in different ways. A personality is a relatively strong stereotype of recurring life interpersonal situations, which are a feature of its life. A personality is formed taking into account the initial specifics of its niche in interpersonal communication (primarily in communication with parents), therefore, in the process of any serious study of any patient, one cannot fail to take into account the history and specifics of his interpersonal contacts.

According to psychoanalysts, from early childhood we establish patterns, or patterns, of behavior into which we tend to fit all our future relationships, or at least all important subsequent relationships. If a child has had a cordial relationship with his father, he may tend to view the male authority figure in a positive light. If, on the other hand, the father was very strict towards the child, then perhaps the child will view authority figures as threatening and treat them accordingly. If a child had to compete for parental attention with his brothers and sisters, then, most likely, he will consider his peers as rivals in the struggle for limited resources, etc.

Repetition compulsion or compulsion to repeat refers to the need to replay over and over again situations and relationships that were particularly difficult or problematic in the early years of our lives.

Freud called the client's desire to transfer his old patterns onto the therapist transference.

Freud's developments in this area are not only relevant to clients and therapists, they are relevant to all of us in all relationships. Everywhere we go, we continually repeat certain aspects of our early life in relationships with authority, in love affairs, in friendships, in business relationships.

Among psychoanalytic concepts, transactional analysis

E. Berna. Having identified three types of I states in the behavior of each person, which he called “Parent”, “Adult” and “Child”, Bern believed that the goal of simple transactional analysis is to find out which state of the “I” is responsible for the transaction stimulus and what state of the person carried out transactional response and thereby determines the nature of relationships between people (Byrne, 1988). According to Berne, the first rule of communication is that as long as the transactions are complementary, that is, the stimulus entails an appropriate, expected and natural response, the communication process will proceed smoothly and can continue indefinitely.

The converse rule is that the communication process is interrupted if what can be called an overlapping transaction occurs, that is, the stimulus causes an inappropriate response. For example, the stimulus is designed for the Adult-Adult relationship (“Do you know where my cufflinks are?”). However, the interlocutor may suddenly flare up (“I’m always to blame for everything!”), which corresponds to the “Child-Parent” scheme, or answer: “Why do you never know where your things are? It seems like you’re not a child anymore, are you?” – which corresponds to the “Parent-Child” scheme. In such circumstances, the solution to the problem will have to be postponed until the vectors are put in order. The player must become either a “Parent”, complementing the “Child” who has unexpectedly awakened in the interlocutor, or activate the “Adult” in him.

Humanistic psychology

The main idea of ​​humanistic psychology is that a person is naturally capable of self-improvement; the very essence of a person constantly moves him in the direction of personal growth, creativity and self-sufficiency.

The development of the theory of interpersonal communication was significantly influenced by the ideas of one of the founders of humanistic psychology, C. Rogers, who identified three main conditions for dialogic communication:

1) naturalness and spontaneity in the expression of feelings and sensations that arise between partners at each specific moment of interaction;

2) an unconditionally positive attitude towards other people and towards oneself, caring about the other and accepting him as an equal communication partner;

3) empathic understanding, the ability to subtly and adequately empathize with the feelings, moods, thoughts of Another during contacts with him.

In this manual, when addressing various aspects, aspects and problems of interpersonal communication, we will use ideas, explanations and justifications proposed by researchers of all theoretical directions.

conclusions

1. The subject area of ​​the theory of interpersonal communication is specified by both quantitative and qualitative parameters. An interaction between people can be characterized as interpersonal if it satisfies the following criteria: it is an interaction between a small number of people; this is a direct interaction: its participants are in spatial proximity, have the opportunity to see, hear, touch each other, and easily provide feedback; This is the so-called person-oriented communication, that is, it is assumed that each of its participants recognizes the irreplaceability and uniqueness of their partner, takes into account the characteristics of their emotional state, self-esteem, and personal characteristics.

2. Taking into account both ordinary ideas and the judgments of specialists, the subject area of ​​interpersonal communication can include: a) mental processes and states that ensure the transaction (interpersonal perception, needs and motivations, emotions and feelings, self-esteem, psychological defenses, etc. .); b) communicative practices that mediate interaction between people (speech, nonverbal messages); c) norms and rules that make joint activity possible, often unconscious, developed within a certain sociocultural group.

The real process of communication is the functional unity of all the listed elements. At the same time, for analytical purposes, such identification of relatively independent blocks turns out to be appropriate.

3. The theory of interpersonal communication is fundamentally a sphere of interdisciplinary knowledge. Psychological, information-communicative and social-normative processes that make up the subject area of ​​the theory of interpersonal communication are studied by various disciplines of humanities: personality psychology and social psychology, linguistics (especially psycho- and sociolinguistics), sociology (primarily such areas of microsociology as symbolic interactionism and dramaturgical sociology).

4. All known theoretical directions within the framework of which socio-psychological research is carried out - behaviorism, cognitivism, psychoanalysis, role theory, humanistic psychology - contributed to the development

Nonverbal communication

Psychologists pay great attention to body language, as it can tell a lot about the intentions and feelings of any person. The movements and postures of people cannot be considered completely innate: as a rule, they are acquired in the process of communication. Body language includes such components as:

• facial expressions are a way of using facial expressions;
• gestures - information is transmitted using hands;
• proxemics is a method of using space where the distance between interlocutors is taken into account when communicating;
• body position - implies control of your body;
• tactile communication - speaks of status, degree of intimacy or friendship between communication partners.

Ways to improve interpersonal communications

Any communication involves the interaction of people with each other. In order for every conversation to be successful, psychologists pay a lot of attention to the development of interpersonal communications. By adhering to the following rules during contact with an opponent, you can significantly improve interpersonal communications:

• Learn to abstract yourself from psychological barriers, which are a significant obstacle to fruitful communication. Internal barriers can arise quite often during a conversation. You can avoid them by concentrating on important points during the conversation.
• Don't forget about good manners and charm. Many people have access to such a “superpower” as charisma, thanks to which they can get everything they need from communication without any problems. This trait is not exclusively an innate quality, which means that it can be developed.
• Say “no” to psychophysical clamps. Loose or too constrained body movements will become a signal to the interlocutor about the presence of psychological and physical abnormalities. Perhaps the opponent will not be able to give a clear definition of this state, but he will immediately sense that something is wrong. In this regard, the success of your conversation will be in great question. To avoid such cases, it is important to be able to relax during a conversation and, of course, to train.
• Become a protégé. If among your friends or acquaintances there are people who are excellent at communication, then you should try to watch and imitate them. By adopting an already proven model of behavior, you can achieve significant success.
• Talk as much as possible, especially for very shy people. Conversations on abstract topics about which everyone can express their opinion can help save you from feeling embarrassed: about the weather, about gasoline prices or traffic jams. This simple secret will help improve interpersonal relationships.
• Communication implies active interaction between individuals, but we should not forget that all people are different, and the approach to each should be purely individual. By communicating daily on a variety of topics with those around you, be it a work colleague or a supermarket clerk, you will gain invaluable experience in communicating in different styles and increase your self-confidence.
• Master the art of asking questions. Scientific research has shown that asking the right question is half the solution to the problem. During the conversation, the correct and accurate question will be the one that the opponent wants to answer and think about. In order to get your communication partner talking, you should use open-ended questions, which usually begin with the words “why”, “why”, “how”, etc. In addition, during the conversation it is important to soften the questions so as not to offend the interlocutor.

Issues of effectiveness of interpersonal communication

According to experts, the effectiveness of interpersonal communication depends primarily on how its inherent functions of interaction and influence are implemented and what their results are. In turn, these results depend on three main conditions that determine the nature of verbal communication:

a) type of communicative personalities,

6) perception of semantic and evaluative information and

c) purposeful influence on each other.

For the effectiveness of interpersonal communication, the best options for these conditions are the following:

• compatibility of partners as communicative personalities,
• adequate perception of semantic and evaluative information,
• influence through persuasion.

Compatibility of partners as communicative personalities presupposes compatibility in all three parameters. The presence of communication needs, even with differences in communication settings, contributes to the establishment of contact, which is important for the initial stage of communication. Both verbal and non-verbal means can serve as a signal for contact. It is very important here that their actualization corresponds to accepted social norms of speech behavior. This greatly facilitates speech interaction.

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Models of mass communication and communicative activities.

… 3) Anthological Information technologies: Internet, radio, television. Lecture 2. Methods of information production. 1. Self-observation - communication I - I I - they The basis of this method is ... with the activities of both public opinion leaders and the media and information. For example, the dominant place belongs to the Internet, television, and personalities. Modern problems: 1) ...

It is noted that already at the initial stage of interpersonal communication, both partners, relying on their cognitive experience, solve several problems simultaneously:

1) What do I think about myself - who am I?

2) What do I think about my partner - who is he?

3) What do I think about how my partner thinks about me?

4) What does your partner think about himself?

5) What does my partner think about me?

6) What does my partner think about how I imagine him.

The blocks of identification, self-knowledge, reflection, forecasting the development of the partner’s image are involved here - everything that helps to tune in to interpersonal communication.

Perception in the context of socio-psychological research is interpreted as the understanding and assessment of a person by a person; and not only and not so much his qualities, but his relationships with other people. The most studied mechanisms of interpersonal perception are:

• identification - understanding another person by identifying oneself with him;
• reflection - understanding another through thinking for him;
• empathy - understanding another person through emotional empathy;
• stereotyping - the perception and assessment of another by transferring to him the generally accepted characteristics of a social group or its representative.

A necessary condition and the most important factor in the effectiveness of interpersonal communication is perception. This is a complex process of receiving and processing semantic and evaluative information. The effectiveness of interpersonal communication depends on the degree of adequacy of semantic perception, since this is related to the correct interpretation of information, the communicative attitude of the partner and the prediction of subsequent stages of communication.

Among the objective factors that determine perception, the features of a speech message (statement, discourse) are noted, which may differ in type (description, narration, argumentation, etc.), in structure (sequence of statements - clarifying, generalizing, etc.) or on the composition of the discourse (introduction, main part, conclusion).

Constancy of perception is also important—its relative independence from accompanying situational factors.

Subjective factors include functional features of the perception process, determined by the cognitive characteristics of a person: the meaningfulness of perception, the discreteness of this process, the conditionality of perception by a person’s past experience, the anticipatory nature of perception. The ability to anticipate, as studies by Russian psychologists have shown, is probabilistic in nature and is one of the most important characteristics of the perception process.

Some subjective factors that make it difficult to adequately perceive are associated with underestimation or ignorance of one’s own self. These factors, in particular, include:

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Main types of communications

... communications: taking into account the cognitive capabilities of specific business partners, their individual attitudes towards obtaining new information and intellectual capabilities for its processing, understanding and perception. Communicative…manifest at different levels of interpersonal communication: social-role, business and intimate-personal. The social-role level of communication is associated with the implementation...

• inability to separate the main from the secondary;
• tendency to pay attention to external details of speech behavior;
• dependence on stereotypical ideas and prejudices;
• the erroneous idea that this behavior of a partner is his constant characteristic;
• ignorance of the circumstances that determine the partner’s speech behavior (including emotional state);
• focusing primarily on negative indicators;
• the dependence of the correct assessment on personal relationships with a partner;
• lack of sense of humor.

Therefore, specific recommendations for improving the ability to perceive are not without value, including the following tasks:

• learn to observe, notice even minor details;
• learn to listen to your partner;
• determine what is the best indicator of understanding for you - gaze, gesture, facial expression, clothing, accent, tone or words, speech formulas;
• record your inaccuracies in perception;
• be aware of how you are perceived;
• develop an orientation towards the interlocutor - show empathy, interest in the partner as a person

A number of conditions that contribute to influence by persuasion are common to interpersonal and mass communication, for example:

• attractiveness and communicative competence of the persuader: in this case, there is a peculiar transfer of the assessment of the individual as a source of information to the assessment of the information itself in terms of its truth, reliability (primary perception, as proven, is more stable);
• instilling confidence, which is determined by the moral character of the persuader, his professional competence, and friendly attitude towards the recipient;
• - the use of a stereotype, which is associated with the individual’s desire to identify his own self;
• - reference to the personal experience of others as visual evidence; in this case, the story-narration must meet two criteria - probability (it may well be) and reliability (it really happened);
• - the use of repetitions, comparisons, contrasts and analogies in speech, as this creates a perspective for the recipient to reason.

For the effectiveness of persuasion in interpersonal communication, the ethical aspect is of particular importance, but this is a separate issue.

Ultimately, the success of interpersonal communication will be determined by the parameters of individuals as communicative individuals. It is also encouraging that the communicative spheres in which interpersonal communication is updated are expanding (including with the help of technical means).

This is a very dynamic type of communication, focused on spoken language, in which the individual is most fully revealed as a communicative personality.